Remembering to be afraid: applications of theories of memory to the science of safety communication

Effects of culture (China vs. US) and task on perceived hazard: Evidence from product ratings, label ratings, and product to label matching

In the current study, 44 Chinese and 40 US college students rated their perceived hazard in response to warning labels and products and attempted to match products with warning labels communicating the same level of hazard. Chinese participants tended to provide lower ratings of hazard in response to labels, but hazard perceived in response to products did not significantly differ as a function of culture. When asked to match a product with a warning label, Chinese participants' hazard perceptions appeared to be better calibrated, than did US participants', across products and labels. The results are interpreted in terms of constructivist theory which suggests that risk perceptions vary depending on the "frame of mind" evoked by the environment/context. Designers of warnings must be sensitive to the fact that product users' cognitive representations develop within a culture and that risk perceptions will vary based on the context in which they are derived.

Warning symbols as reminders of hazards: impact of training

Prior research indicates that many warning symbols are poorly understood. However Lesch [Lesch, M.F., 2003. Comprehension and memory for warning symbols: Age-related differences and impact of training. J. Safety Res. 34, 495-505] found that accident scenarios could be used to improve comprehension of warning symbols. The current study further investigated the potential benefits of accident scenario training. During training, warning symbols with verbal labels corresponding to the meaning of the symbol were paired with accident scenarios which expanded on the nature of the hazard, the required/prohibited actions, as well as the possible consequences of failing to comply. A number of measures were obtained prior to, and following (immediately and 2 weeks later), the accident scenario training: comprehension across three knowledge types (verbal label, required/prohibited actions, potential consequences of failure to comply), ratings of agreement with statements reflecting perceived control, and ratings of hazard and intent to comply. Benefits of training were observed on all dependent measures: Comprehension improved from 43 to 82% correct, reaction times were reduced by about 2s, and level of confidence in correct responses increased by 23%. Ratings of perceived hazard, intent to comply, and perceived control over accident/injury involvement also increased. It is suggested that accident scenario training can be used to help prevent accidents and injuries by ensuring that responses to warnings are "sure and swift".

A comparison of two training methods for improving warning symbol comprehension

This study compared the effectiveness of two different types of training in improving comprehension of warning symbols by younger (aged 20-35 years) and older adults (aged 50-70 years). The verbal label training paired the symbol with a label describing its meaning while the accident scenario training further expanded on the nature of the hazard, the required/prohibited actions, as well as the possible consequences of failing to comply. Contrary to prior research (e.g., [Lesch, M.F., 2003. Comprehension and memory for warning symbols: age-related differences and impact of training. J. Safety Res. 34, 495-505]), there was no difference in comprehension for younger and older adults prior to training, with both groups only obtaining about 40% correct responses. Both types of training improved performance on a subsequent comprehension test. However, the accident scenario training produced a higher percentage of correct responses, greater confidence in those responses, as well as a longer-lasting reduction of reaction times. In order to further improve symbol design, as well as training to address comprehension difficulties, future research should more closely examine symbol characteristics that influence comprehension.