The shifting paradigm of colorectal cancer treatment: a look into emerging cancer stem cell-directed therapeutics to lead the charge toward complete remission

Astragali Radix-Curcumae Rhizoma herb pair reduces the stemness of colorectal cancer cells through HIF-2α/β-catenin pathway

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common causes of cancer-related mortality and significantly impairs quality of life. Astragali Radix-Curcumae Rhizoma (AC) is widely employed in the treatment of CRC in Chinese medicine, but the precise mechanisms remain unclear.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to elucidate the mechanisms by which AC inhibits CRC progression.

METHODS

The active components of AC were identified using UPLC-MS/MS analysis. An orthotopic transplantation colorectal tumor model was established in BALB/c mice using the CT26-Lucifer cell line to evaluate the effects of AC. Tumor volumes were monitored using IVIS imaging technology. Histological examination of tumor morphology was performed with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. Transcriptomic sequencing of mouse tumor samples was conducted to identify critical pathways and molecular targets. The impact of AC on cell viability and migration was assessed using CCK-8 and wound healing assays, respectively. To investigate the effects of AC on CRC cells, an in vitro hypoxic model was established using cobalt chloride (CoCl2), a hypoxia inducer. HIF-2α overexpression was achieved by constructing stable lentiviral vectors. Key targets identified from RNA-seq, such as c-Myc, Ki-67, β-catenin, cleaved caspase 3, CD133, and CD44, were evaluated using western blotting, qRT-PCR, and immunofluorescence assays. Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) and spheroid cloning assays were employed to evaluate phenotypic changes in cancer stem cells.

RESULTS

Twelve components of AC were identified. AC effectively inhibited CRC progression in vivo. Transcriptomic analysis highlighted hypoxic signaling as a significantly enriched pathway, implicating its role in suppressing CRC progression by AC. In the hypoxic model, AC inhibited the proliferation and migration of CRC cells in vitro. Furthermore, AC reduced cancer stemness by downregulating stemness markers, inhibiting EMT, and decreasing tumor sphere formation. The downregulation of hypoxic responses and the shift in stemness by AC involved attenuation of HIF-2α and WNT/β-catenin signaling.

CONCLUSION

This study provides the first evidence that AC reduces the stemness of CRC and the inhibition of the transition of CRC to stem-like cells by AC is closely related to the downregulation of the HIF-2α/β-catenin pathway, especially under hypoxic conditions.

Regulation of the migration of colorectal cancer stem cells via the TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway by the novel surface marker CD14 following LPS stimulation

Cell surface markers are most widely used in the study of cancer stem cells (CSCs). However, cell surface markers that are safely and stably expressed in CSCs have yet to be identified. Colonic CSCs express leukocyte CD14. CD14 binding to the ligand lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is involved in the inflammatory response via the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) signaling pathway. TLR4 and MyD88 have been reported to promote the proliferation, metastasis and tumorigenicity of colon cancer cells, which is consistent with the characteristics of CSCs. In the present study, the proposed experimental method to detect cell proliferation, metastasis and tumorigenesis was used to confirm that, under LPS stimulation, CD14 promoted the proliferation, migration and tumorigenesis of colonic CSCs via the TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway. Cell Counting Kit-8 and 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine assays were used to assess the proliferation and migration of the cells. Colony formation and nude mouse xenograft assays were used to assess the capacity of cells to form tumors. Using western blotting and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR, the mRNA and protein levels of CD14, TLR4 and MyD88 were examined. It was confirmed that CD14 promoted the proliferation, metastasis and tumorigenesis of colon CSCs in response to LPS stimulation via the TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway, and CD14+ colon cancer cells were successfully isolated and sorted. According to the results of proliferation assay, it was determined that CD14 regulated the LPS-induced proliferation of colon CSCs. CD14, TLR4 and MyD88 protein and mRNA expression was upregulated in colon CSCs in response to LPS stimulation. This indicates a potential novel target for colon CSC-related studies.

MEK inhibitor and anti-EGFR antibody overcome sotorasib resistance signals and enhance its antitumor effect in colorectal cancer cells

The Kirsten rat sarcoma (KRAS) oncogene was "undruggable" until sotorasib, a KRAS^G12C selective inhibitor, was developed with promising efficacy. However, inhibition of mutant KRAS in colorectal cancer cells (CRC) is ineffective due to feedback activation of MEK/ERK downstream of KRAS. In this study, we screened for combination therapies of simultaneous inhibition to overcome sotorasib resistance using our previously developed Mix Culture Assay. We evaluated whether there was an additive effect of sotorasib administered alone and in combination with two or three drugs: trametinib, a MEK inhibitor, and cetuximab, an anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) antibody. The MAPK pathway was reactivated in KRAS^G12C-mutated cell lines treated with sotorasib alone. Treatment with KRAS and MEK inhibitors suppressed the reactivation of the MAPK pathway, but upregulated EGFR expression. However, the addition of cetuximab to this combination suppressed EGFR reactivation. This three-drug combination therapy resulted in significant growth inhibition in vitro and in vivo. Our data suggest that reactive feedback may play a key role in the resistance signal in CRC. Simultaneously inhibiting KRAS, MEK, and EGFR is a potentially promising strategy for patients with KRAS^G12C-mutated CRC.

AT7867 Inhibits the Growth of Colorectal Cancer Stem-Like Cells and Stemness by Regulating the Stem Cell Maintenance Factor Ascl2 and Akt Signaling

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are the core factors leading to recurrence, insensitivity to radiotherapy and chemotherapy, and immunotherapy resistance in patients with colorectal cancer. AT7867, a potent oral AKT inhibitor, was found to have antitumor activity in colorectal cancer; however, the effect on colorectal cancer stem cells is still unclear. This study was conducted to clarify the molecular mechanism underlying the CSC growth inhibitory effects of AT7867. We cultured colorectal cancer cells (CRCs) in a serum-free medium and enriched colorectal cancer stem cells. Subsequently, the effects of AT7867 on CSCs were analyzed by CCK-8, colony formation, flow cytometry, and immunofluorescence assays. The results indicated that AT7867 induces G2/M phase arrest and cell apoptosis in cancer stem cells. Subsequently, we identified Ascl2 as the main gene affecting the stemness of colorectal cancer in AT7867 by RNA sequencing. The current study showed that Ascl2 is involved in the metastasis, invasion, and proliferation of CRCs. The next experiments demonstrated that overexpression of Ascl2 did affect the therapeutic effect of AT7867 on CRC stemness. Furthermore, compared with other Akt inhibitors, AT7867 could promote the differentiation of colorectal cancer stem cells. Thus, AT7867 might be a potential antitumor drug candidate to treat CRC by targeting CSCs.

Emerging drug targets for colon cancer: A preclinical assessment

INTRODUCTION

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second leading cause of cancer-related death in the United States. There have been improvements in screening, and therefore overall survival, but patients continue to present at late stages when minimal treatment options are available to them. While some targeted therapies have been introduced, their application is limited by patient-specific tumor characteristics. Additional targets for CRC in patients who present at a late stage, or who experience tumor relapse, need to be identified to continue to improve patient outcomes.

AREAS COVERED

This review focuses on emerging pathways and drug targets for the treatment of colorectal cancer. The shift to the cancer stem cell model and potential targets involving Wnt, NF-κB, phosphodiesterases, RAS, and guanylyl cyclase C, are discussed. The current utility of checkpoint inhibitors and evolving immunological options are examined.

EXPERT OPINION

Surgery and current systemic cytotoxic therapies are inadequate to appropriately treat the full spectrum of CRC, especially in those patients who present with metastatic or treatment-refractory disease. In addition to the identification of new, more generalizable targets, additional focus is being placed on novel administrations. Immuno-oncologic options and stem cell-targeting therapies for mCRC will become available to patients and may increase survival.