Musculoskeletal loading during the round-off in female gymnastics: the effect of hand position

The effect of changes in fundamental skill complexity on upper limb loading and biomechanical characteristics of performance in female gymnastics

Aims of this study were to investigate if changes in elbow and wrist joints loading and biomechanical characteristics of performance existed as a function of (a) different hand placement and (b) fundamental skills development in female gymnastics. Ten female gymnasts performed 54 successful trials of round-off skills (cartwheel [18], round-off [18], round-off to back handspring [18]), with three different hand positions (parallel, T-shape and reverse). Kinematic and kinetic data were collected for each trial. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyse the injury risk factors. Findings of the current study showed that an increase in RO skill difficulty level significantly influences the mechanical load on the upper extremities. With the increase in mechanical load on the upper extremities during the reverse and parallel hand positions, this study suggests that that T-shape hand position should be used as the primary technique for the young female. Differences in vertical velocity from touchdown to take-off between the three hand positions for the RO and RO-BH suggested that the reverse position was less effective for young female gymnasts. The findings of the current study demonstrated no clear performance benefits between hand position selection.

A kinetic and kinematic comparison of the two-footed and step-out back handsprings on the balance beam

The back handspring is one of the most commonly performed skills on the balance beam in women's gymnastics. Despite this, quantitative research on the beam has often been overlooked. This study aimed to investigate the kinetic and kinematic variables during the performance of two back handspring techniques on the beam: the back handspring with two footed landing and the back handspring step-out. A modified balance beam was fixed to a force plate with an isolated mat for landing to allow analysis of the take-off and hand contact phases. Kinetic and kinematic data were recorded for twelve gymnasts performing both techniques. No statistically significant differences between techniques were found during take-off. However, average peak vertical and horizontal ground reaction forces (4.1 bodyweights ± 1.1 BW, and 0.7 BW ± 0.2 BW, respectively) were higher and time to peak force shorter during the hand contact phase for the two footed variant. A more vertical trajectory, along with a greater hand contact ground reaction force were found in comparison to the back handspring performed on the floor. These results highlight the need for more specific investigation to understand the factors which could contribute to reducing the load faced during balance beam performance.

Upper limb biomechanics and dynamics of a core skill on floor exercise in female gymnastics

This study aimed to increase understanding of the biomechanics and dynamics of the upper limbs during the contact phase of the round-off (RO) performed using three techniques. Twenty female gymnasts performed six successful RO trials in each condition: parallel, T-shape and reverse. Kinetic and kinematic data were collected for each trial. All analyses focused on the contact phase for each hand. Continuous joint profiles examined the dynamics of these tasks as well as the kinetic sequencing. In each case, joint angles, angular velocity, moments and powers at the wrist and elbow joint were reported. Difference between the contact phases of the techniques was examined using a one-way ANOVA SPM. The T-shape technique demonstrated negative power at the wrist during contact; however, the elbow joint compensated with a significantly greater positive power generation during the propulsive phase, suggesting a more effective technique compared to the reduced powers of the reverse and parallel. The order of the peak joint powers during the contact phase, the reverse technique, demonstrated a proximal to distal sequence, in contrast to the distal to proximal for the other techniques. These findings highlight the task-specific coordinative structures during this closed chained action.

Current issues and future directions in gymnastics research: biomechanics, motor control and coaching interface

The sport of gymnastics is undergoing a global examination of its culture and the relationship between the gymnast, coach and environment is a central focus. The aim of this review is to explore biomechanics and motor control research in skill development and technique selection in artistic gymnastics with a focus on the underlying concepts and scientific principles that allow performance enhancement, skill development and injury risk reduction. The current review examines peer reviewed papers from 2000 onwards, with a focus on contemporary approaches in the field of gymnastics research, and highlights several key directions for future gymnastics research. Based on our review and the integration of the models of Newell (1986) and Irwin et al. (2005), we recommend that future gymnastics research should embrace at the very least a multidisciplinary approach and aim for an interdisciplinary paradigm.

Overuse Elbow Injuries in Youth Gymnasts

BACKGROUND

Gymnastics is a unique sport that places significant loads across the growing elbow, resulting in unique overuse injuries, some of which are poorly described in the current literature.

PURPOSE

To provide a comprehensive review of the unique overuse elbow injuries seen in youth gymnasts and to provide an up-to-date synthesis of the available literature and clinical expertise guiding treatment decisions in this population.

STUDY DESIGN

Narrative review.

METHODS

A review of the PubMed database was performed to include all studies describing elbow biomechanics during gymnastics, clinical entities of the elbow in gymnasts, and outcomes of operative and/or nonoperative treatment of elbow pathology in gymnasts.

RESULTS

Participation in gymnastics among youth athletes is high, being the sixth most common sport in children. Early specialization is the norm in this sport, and gymnastics also has the highest number of participation hours of all youth sports. As a result, unique overuse elbow injuries are common, primarily on the lateral side of the elbow. Beyond common diagnoses of radiocapitellar plica and osteochondritis dissecans of the capitellum, we describe a pathology unique to gymnasts involving stress fracture of the radial head. Additionally, we synthesized our clinical experience and expertise in gymnastics to provide a sport-specific rehabilitation program that can be used by providers treating surgical and nonsurgical conditions of the elbow and wishing to provide detailed activity instructions to their athletes.

CONCLUSION

Overuse injuries of the elbow are common in gymnastics and include osteochondritis dissecans of the capitellum, radiocapitellar plica syndrome, and newly described radial head stress fractures. A thorough understanding of the psychological, cultural, and biomechanical aspects of gymnastics are necessary to care for these athletes.

The Relationship of Shoulder and Elbow Stresses and Upper Limb Contact Order During a Round-Off Back Handspring

INTRODUCTION

Despite high injury incidence rates in gymnastics, there is a paucity of data characterizing upper extremity injury causation and biomechanical risk factors. This study investigated contact forces across multiple joints in both upper extremities during a round-off back handspring (ROBHS), a fundamental gymnastics tumbling maneuver.

OBJECTIVE

(1) To characterize the three-dimensional (3-D) biomechanics of the sequential, asynchronous contact of each upper extremity with the ground during a ROBHS using 3-D motion capture, and (2) to evaluate potential correlations to upper extremity injury risk.

DESIGN

Observational cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Controlled laboratory environment.

PARTICIPANTS

Fourteen competitive female gymnasts aged 10-21 years (mean age: 16.6 ± 3.1 years) (1) participating on a competitive gymnastics team; (2) capable of successfully completing a ROBHS; and (3) free of reported injury at enrollment.

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Variables evaluated include joint angle, torque, compression force, ground reaction force (GRF), time to peak GRF, and limb loading rates. Variables were analyzed at the wrist, elbow, and shoulder of both limbs at ground contact. The hypothesis that these dependent variables would differ by ROBHS upper extremity contact order was formulated retrospectively after data collection.

RESULTS

The first contact limb experienced significantly greater extension torque at the elbow (first: 48.89 ± 18.01 Nm, second: 22.49 ± 9.19 Nm; P = .014; CI 95% [14.83, 37.97]) and faster time to peak GRF (P < .001, CI 95% [-1.79, -0.99]). The second limb of contact experienced significantly greater abduction torque at the shoulder (P = .007; CI 95% [-21.58,-8.08]) and anterior-posterior GRF at contact (P = .007; CI 95% [-1.06,-0.26]).

CONCLUSIONS

The biomechanical differences between contact limbs during the ROBHS may lead to different injury risk. Recognition of the stresses at the elbow and shoulder for both limbs also provides new insight for rehabilitation clinicians to consider when guiding patients to return to gymnastics activity after injury.

Isolated complete ulnar collateral ligament tear of the elbow in a gymnast: does it need surgery?

Ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) tears can occur from trauma or chronic overuse, and the treatment depends on the type of sport the patient plays and the severity of symptoms. Overuse UCL injuries are most commonly due to micro-trauma in overhead athletes such as baseball players, softball players, and tennis players. Acute complete UCL tears in athletes due to trauma are less common but generally operative treatment is recommended. In gymnastics, elbow dislocations are more common than isolated UCL injuries, and there is sparse literature on the success of non-operative treatment of isolated UCL injuries in this group of athletes. In this case report, we report a high-level competitive gymnast with an UCL tear and a partial tear of the forearm flexor mass, which was confirmed by a thorough careful physical examination and magnetic resonance imaging. The patient was treated non-operatively and successfully returned to gymnastics without symptoms. This case supports the suggestion that UCL tears of the elbow can be treated successfully in some gymnasts without surgery, and that treatment should be individualized in this group of athletes.

Technique Selection 'the Coaches Challenge' Influencing Injury Risk During the First Contact Hand of the Round off Skill in Female Gymnastics

The importance of technique selection on elbow injury risk has been identified for the key round off skill in female gymnastics, with a focus on the second contact limb. The aim of this study was to shift the focus to the first contact limb and investigate the biomechanical injury risk during parallel and T-shape round-off (RO) techniques. Seven international-level female gymnasts performed 10 trials of the RO to back-handspring with parallel and T-shape hand positions. Synchronized kinematic (3D motion analysis system; 247 Hz) and kinetic (two force plates; 1235 Hz) data were collected for each trial. The t-test with effect size statistics determined differences between the two techniques. No significant differences were found for vertical, anterior posterior and resultant ground reaction force, elbow joint kinematics and kinetics. Specifically, the results highlighted that change in technique in RO skills did not influence first contact limb elbow joint mechanics and therefore, injury risk. The findings of the present study suggest the injury potential of this skill is focused on the second limb during the parallel technique of this fundamental gymnastic skill.

Foot and Ankle Deformity in Young Acrobatic and Artistic Gymnasts

Purpose. The aim of the paper was to determine the occurrence of feet and ankle deformities in trampoline and artistic gymnasts. Methods. Ten acrobatic gymnasts (trampolinists) and 10 artistic gymnasts aged 6-14 years were recruited. The calcaneal-tibial (rearfoot) angle was determined as the angle of the upper calcaneal tendon and the longitudinal heel axis while Clarke angles were determined by podoscopy. Results. The trampolinists showed significantly greater medial angulation (calcaneal valgus) than the group of gymnasts. Right and left foot Clark’s angles in both the trampoline and artistic gymnasts were above 55°. Conclusions. Trampolinists exhibit significantly more pronounced calcaneal valgus than artistic gymnasts. The prevalence of foot and ankle deformities in both populations should be addressed by coaches in the gymnastics training of young children.