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de Sousa T, Silva C, Alves O, Costa E, Igrejas G, Poeta P, Hébraud M. Determination of Antimicrobial Resistance and the Impact of Imipenem + Cilastatin Synergy with Tetracycline in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Isolates from Sepsis. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2687. [PMID: 38004699 PMCID: PMC10673103 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11112687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is among the most ubiquitous bacteria in the natural world, exhibiting metabolic and physiological versatility, which makes it highly adaptable. Imipenem + cilastatin and tetracycline are antibiotic combinations commonly used to treat infections caused by P. aeruginosa, including serious infections such as sepsis. In the context of bacterial infections, biofilm, formed by bacterial cells surrounded by extracellular substances forming a matrix, plays a pivotal role in the resistance of P. aeruginosa to antibiotics. This study aimed to characterize a representative panel of P. aeruginosa isolates from septicemias, assessing their susceptibility to various antibiotics, specifically, imipenem + cilastatin and tetracycline, and the impact of these treatments on biofilm formation. Results from antibiotic susceptibility tests revealed sensitivity in most isolates to six antibiotics, with four showing near or equal to 100% sensitivity. However, resistance was observed in some antibiotics, albeit at minimal levels. Notably, tetracycline showed a 100% resistance phenotype, while imipenem + cilastatin predominantly displayed an intermediate phenotype (85.72%), with some resistance (38.1%). Microdilution susceptibility testing identified effective combinations against different isolates. Regarding biofilm formation, P. aeruginosa demonstrated the ability to produce biofilms. The staining of microtiter plates confirmed that specific concentrations of imipenem + cilastatin and tetracycline could inhibit biofilm production. A significant proportion of isolates exhibited resistance to aminoglycoside antibiotics because of the presence of modifying genes (aac(3)-II and aac(3)-III), reducing their effectiveness. This study also explored various resistance genes, unveiling diverse resistance mechanisms among P. aeruginosa isolates. Several virulence genes were detected, including the las quorum-sensing system genes (lasI and lasR) in a significant proportion of isolates, contributing to virulence factor activation. However, genes related to the type IV pili (T4P) system (pilB and pilA) were found in limited isolates. In conclusion, this comprehensive study sheds light on the intricate dynamics of P. aeruginosa, a remarkably adaptable bacterium with a widespread presence in the natural world. Our findings provide valuable insights into the ongoing battle against P. aeruginosa infections, highlighting the need for tailored antibiotic therapies and innovative approaches to combat biofilm-related resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Telma de Sousa
- MicroART-Antibiotic Resistance Team, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (T.d.S.); (C.S.); (P.P.)
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Unit, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
- Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry, University NOVA of Lisbon, 1099-085 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Catarina Silva
- MicroART-Antibiotic Resistance Team, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (T.d.S.); (C.S.); (P.P.)
| | - Olimpia Alves
- Hospital Centre of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Clinical Pathology Department, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (O.A.); (E.C.)
| | - Eliana Costa
- Hospital Centre of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Clinical Pathology Department, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (O.A.); (E.C.)
| | - Gilberto Igrejas
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
- Functional Genomics and Proteomics Unit, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
- Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry, University NOVA of Lisbon, 1099-085 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Patricia Poeta
- MicroART-Antibiotic Resistance Team, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (T.d.S.); (C.S.); (P.P.)
- Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry, University NOVA of Lisbon, 1099-085 Caparica, Portugal
- CECAV—Veterinary and Animal Research Centre, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
- Veterinary and Animal Research Centre, Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Science (AL4AnimalS), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Michel Hébraud
- INRAE, Université Clermont Auvergne, UMR Microbiologie Environnement Digestif Santé (MEDiS), 63122 Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
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Neumann N, Honke M, Povydysh M, Guenther S, Schulze C. Evaluating Tannins and Flavonoids from Traditionally Used Medicinal Plants with Biofilm Inhibitory Effects against MRGN E. coli. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27072284. [PMID: 35408683 PMCID: PMC9000218 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27072284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In the search for alternative treatment options for infections with multi-resistant germs, traditionally used medicinal plants are currently being examined more intensively. In this study, the antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activities of 14 herbal drugs were investigated. Nine of the tested drugs were traditionally used in Europe for treatment of local infections. For comparison, another five drugs monographed in the European Pharmacopoeia were used. Additionally, the total tannin and flavonoid contents of all tested drugs were analyzed. HPLC fingerprints were recorded to obtain further insights into the components of the extracts. The aim of the study was to identify herbal drugs that might be useable for treatment of infectious diseases, even with multidrug resistant E. coli, and to correlate the antimicrobial activity with the total content of tannins and flavonoids. The agar diffusion test and anti-biofilm assay were used to evaluate the antimicrobial potential of different extracts from the plants. Colorimetric methods (from European Pharmacopeia) were used for determination of total tannins and flavonoids. The direct antimicrobial activity of most of the tested extracts was low to moderate. The anti-biofilm activity was found to be down to 10 µg mL−1 for some extracts. Tannin contents between 2.2% and 10.4% of dry weight and total flavonoid contents between 0.1% and 1.6% were found. Correlation analysis indicates that the antimicrobial and the anti-biofilm activity is significantly (p < 0.05) dependent on tannin content, but not on flavonoid content. The data analysis revealed that tannin-rich herbal drugs inhibit pathogens in different ways. Thus, some of the tested herbal drugs might be useable for local infections with multi-resistant biofilm-forming pathogens. For some of the tested drugs, this is the first report about anti-biofilm activity, as well as total tannin and flavonoid content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niclas Neumann
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Greifswald, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße 17, 17489 Greifswald, Germany; (N.N.); (M.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Miriam Honke
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Greifswald, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße 17, 17489 Greifswald, Germany; (N.N.); (M.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Maria Povydysh
- Saint Petersburg Stat Chemical Pharmaceutical Academy, St. Prof. Popova, 14, 197022 St. Petersburg, Russia;
| | - Sebastian Guenther
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Greifswald, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße 17, 17489 Greifswald, Germany; (N.N.); (M.H.); (S.G.)
| | - Christian Schulze
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Greifswald, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße 17, 17489 Greifswald, Germany; (N.N.); (M.H.); (S.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-383-4420-4833
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Bhandari S, Adhikari S, Karki D, Chand AB, Sapkota S, Dhungel B, Banjara MR, Joshi P, Lekhak B, Rijal KR. Antibiotic Resistance, Biofilm Formation and Detection of mexA/mexB Efflux-Pump Genes Among Clinical Isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a Tertiary Care Hospital, Nepal. FRONTIERS IN TROPICAL DISEASES 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fitd.2021.810863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Efflux-pump system and biofilm formation are two important mechanisms Pseudomonas aeruginosa deploys to escape the effects of antibiotics. The current study was undertaken from September 2019 to March 2020 at a tertiary-care hospital in Kathmandu in order to ascertain the burden of P. aeruginosa in clinical specimens, examine their biofilm-forming ability and determine their antibiotic susceptibility pattern along with the possession of two efflux-pump genes-mexA and mexB. Altogether 2820 clinical specimens were collected aseptically from the patients attending the hospital and processed according to standard microbiological procedures. Identification of P. aeruginosa was done by Gram stain microscopy and an array of biochemical tests. All the P. aeruginosa isolates were subjected to in vitro antibiotic susceptibility testing and their biofilm-forming ability was also examined. Presence of mexA and mexB efflux-pump genes was analyzed by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) using specific primers. Out of 603 culture positive isolates, 31 (5.14%) were found to be P. aeruginosa, of which 55% were multi-drug resistant (MDR). Out of 13 commonly used antibiotics tested by Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method, greatest resistance was shown against piperacillin-tazobactam 15 (48.4%) and ceftazidime 15 (48.4%), and least against meropenem 6 (19.4%) and ofloxacin 5 (16.2%). Of all 17 MDR isolates subjected to biofilm detection, strong biofilm formation was exhibited by 11 (65%) and 14 (82%) isolates with microtiter plate method and tube method respectively. Out of 17 isolates tested, 12 (70.6%) isolates possessed mexA and mexB genes indicating the presence of active efflux-pump system. Higher number of the isolates recovered from sputum 7 (58.3%) and pus 5 (41.7%) possessed mexA/mexB genes while the genes were not detected at all in the isolates recovered from the urine (p<0.05). This study assessed no significant association between biofilm production and multi-drug resistance (p>0.05). Adoption of stern measures by the concerned authorities to curb the incidence of multi-drug resistant and biofilm-forming isolates is recommended to prevent their dissemination in the hospital settings.
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Gajdács M, Baráth Z, Kárpáti K, Szabó D, Usai D, Zanetti S, Donadu MG. No Correlation between Biofilm Formation, Virulence Factors, and Antibiotic Resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Results from a Laboratory-Based In Vitro Study. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:1134. [PMID: 34572716 PMCID: PMC8471826 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10091134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) possesses a plethora of virulence determinants, including the production of biofilm, pigments, exotoxins, proteases, flagella, and secretion systems. The aim of our present study was to establish the relationship between biofilm-forming capacity, the expression of some important virulence factors, and the multidrug-resistant (MDR) phenotype in P. aeruginosa. A total of three hundred and two (n = 302) isolates were included in this study. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing and phenotypic detection of resistance determinants were carried out; based on these results, isolates were grouped into distinct resistotypes and multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) indices were calculated. The capacity of isolates to produce biofilm was assessed using a crystal violet microtiter-plate based method. Motility (swimming, swarming, and twitching) and pigment-production (pyoverdine and pyocyanin) were also measured. Pearson correlation coefficients (r) were calculated to determine for antimicrobial resistance, biofilm-formation, and expression of other virulence factors. Resistance rates were the highest for ceftazidime (56.95%; n = 172), levofloxacin (54.97%; n = 166), and ciprofloxacin (54.64%; n = 159), while lowest for colistin (1.66%; n = 5); 44.04% (n = 133) of isolates were classified as MDR. 19.87% (n = 60), 20.86% (n = 63) and 59.27% (n = 179) were classified as weak, moderate, and strong biofilm producers, respectively. With the exception of pyocyanin production (0.371 ± 0.193 vs. non-MDR: 0.319 ± 0.191; p = 0.018), MDR and non-MDR isolates did not show significant differences in expression of virulence factors. Additionally, no relevant correlations were seen between the rate of biofilm formation, pigment production, or motility. Data on interplay between the presence and mechanisms of drug resistance with those of biofilm formation and virulence is crucial to address chronic bacterial infections and to provide strategies for their management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Márió Gajdács
- Department of Oral Biology and Experimental Dental Research, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Szeged, Tisza Lajos körút 63, 6720 Szeged, Hungary
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, 1089 Budapest, Hungary;
| | - Zoltán Baráth
- Department of Prosthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Szeged, Tisza Lajos körút 62–64, 6720 Szeged, Hungary;
| | - Krisztina Kárpáti
- Department of Orthodontics and Pediatric Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Szeged, Tisza Lajos körút 62–64, 6720 Szeged, Hungary;
| | - Dóra Szabó
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, 1089 Budapest, Hungary;
| | - Donatella Usai
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (D.U.); (S.Z.); (M.G.D.)
| | - Stefania Zanetti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (D.U.); (S.Z.); (M.G.D.)
| | - Matthew Gavino Donadu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (D.U.); (S.Z.); (M.G.D.)
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
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Redfern J, Ratova M, Dean AP, Pritchett J, Grao M, Verran J, Kelly P. Visible light photocatalytic bismuth oxide coatings are effective at suppressing aquatic cyanobacteria and degrading free-floating genomic DNA. J Environ Sci (China) 2021; 104:128-136. [PMID: 33985716 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2020.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Access to safe drinking water free from microbial pollution is an issue of global concern. The use of photocatalytic thin films in water treatment has focused on titanium dioxide, which requires UV-activation, proving a potential barrier to upscaling and implementation in the real world. Visible-light-activated photocatalytic thin films, such as bismuth oxide, have recently been shown to have antimicrobial properties. However, more understanding of the photocatalytic effect on the microbial population in water is required. Glass beads coated with bismuth oxide were incubated with either Microcystis aeruginosa, Anabaena sp. or free-floating genomic DNA. The presence of bismuth oxide-coated glass beads was able to rapidly stop a population of cyanobacteria from increasing. The coated beads were also able to degrade genomic DNA. Leachate from the beads showed no increase in toxicity against human liver cells. This data demonstrates the efficacy of bismuth oxide-coated glass beads for controlling potentially dangerous cyanobacterial populations, whilst potentially reducing the amount of free-floating genomic DNA (an essential issue in the face of antimicrobial resistance) - all of which should be essential considerations in emerging water treatment technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Redfern
- Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, M1 5GD, UK.
| | - Marina Ratova
- Surface Engineering Group, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, M1 5GD, UK
| | - Andrew P Dean
- Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, M1 5GD, UK
| | - James Pritchett
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, M1 5GD, UK
| | - Matthieu Grao
- Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, M1 5GD, UK
| | - Joanna Verran
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, M1 5GD, UK
| | - Peter Kelly
- Surface Engineering Group, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, M1 5GD, UK
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He F, Wu X, Zhang Q, Li Y, Ye Y, Li P, Chen S, Peng Y, Hardeland R, Xia Y. Bacteriostatic Potential of Melatonin: Therapeutic Standing and Mechanistic Insights. Front Immunol 2021; 12:683879. [PMID: 34135911 PMCID: PMC8201398 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.683879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria in animals (e.g., bacterial pneumonia, meningitis and sepsis) and plants (e.g., bacterial wilt, angular spot and canker) lead to high prevalence and mortality, and decomposition of plant leaves, respectively. Melatonin, an endogenous molecule, is highly pleiotropic, and accumulating evidence supports the notion that melatonin's actions in bacterial infection deserve particular attention. Here, we summarize the antibacterial effects of melatonin in vitro, in animals as well as plants, and discuss the potential mechanisms. Melatonin exerts antibacterial activities not only on classic gram-negative and -positive bacteria, but also on members of other bacterial groups, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Protective actions against bacterial infections can occur at different levels. Direct actions of melatonin may occur only at very high concentrations, which is at the borderline of practical applicability. However, various indirect functions comprise activation of hosts' defense mechanisms or, in sepsis, attenuation of bacterially induced inflammation. In plants, its antibacterial functions involve the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway; in animals, protection by melatonin against bacterially induced damage is associated with inhibition or activation of various signaling pathways, including key regulators such as NF-κB, STAT-1, Nrf2, NLRP3 inflammasome, MAPK and TLR-2/4. Moreover, melatonin can reduce formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS, RNS), promote detoxification and protect mitochondrial damage. Altogether, we propose that melatonin could be an effective approach against various pathogenic bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang He
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China.,Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control, Institute of Subtropical Animal Nutrition and Feed, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoyan Wu
- Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control, Institute of Subtropical Animal Nutrition and Feed, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qingzhuo Zhang
- Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control, Institute of Subtropical Animal Nutrition and Feed, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yikun Li
- Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control, Institute of Subtropical Animal Nutrition and Feed, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuyi Ye
- Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control, Institute of Subtropical Animal Nutrition and Feed, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Pan Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shuai Chen
- Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha, China
| | - Yuanyi Peng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Rüdiger Hardeland
- Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Yaoyao Xia
- Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control, Institute of Subtropical Animal Nutrition and Feed, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
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Scimone A, Redfern J, Patiphatpanya P, Thongtem T, Ratova M, Kelly P, Verran J. Development of a rapid method for assessing the efficacy of antibacterial photocatalytic coatings. Talanta 2021; 225:122009. [PMID: 33592748 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.122009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Visible-light activated photocatalytic coatings may represent an attractive antimicrobial solution in domains such as food, beverage, pharmaceutical, biomedical and wastewater remediation. However, testing methods to determine the antibacterial effects of photocatalytic coatings are limited and require specialist expertise. This paper describes the development of a method that enables rapid screening of coatings for photocatalytic-antibacterial activity. Relying on the ability of viable microorganisms to reduce the dye resazurin from a blue to a pink colour, the method relates the time taken to detect this colour change with number of viable microorganisms. The antibacterial activity of two photocatalytic materials (bismuth oxide and titanium dioxide) were screened against two pathogenic organisms (Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae) that represent potential target microorganisms using traditional testing and enumeration techniques (BS ISO 27447:2009) and the novel rapid method. Bismuth oxide showed excellent antibacterial activity under ambient visible light against E. coli, but was less effective against K. pneumoniae. The rapid method showed excellent agreement with existing tests in terms of number of viable cells recovered. Due to advantages such as low cost, high throughput, and less reliance on microbiological expertise, this method is recommended for researchers seeking an inexpensive first-stage screen for putative photocatalytic-antibacterial coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antony Scimone
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.
| | - James Redfern
- Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Panudda Patiphatpanya
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Titipun Thongtem
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Materials Science Research Center, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Marina Ratova
- Surface Engineering Group, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Peter Kelly
- Surface Engineering Group, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Joanna Verran
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.
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