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Rajendran V, Naveen NC. Identifying Fast and Slow-Acting Antimalarial Compounds of Pandemic Response Box Against Blood-Stage Culture of Plasmodium falciparum 3D7. Curr Microbiol 2024; 81:81. [PMID: 38289473 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-023-03601-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
The evolving clinical resistance in Plasmodium falciparum and the spike in malarial cases after the COVID-19 outbreak has triggered a search for new antimalarials effective against multi-drug-resistant P. falciparum strains. In this study, we assessed the timing of action, either fast or slow-acting of 13 potent compounds of Pandemic Response Box (PRB) against blood-stage Pf3D7 strain by SYBR Green-I assay. The asynchronous culture of Pf3D7 was exposed to varying concentrations of 13 compounds, and IC50 values were determined at 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h. We identified four fast-acting compounds (MMV000008, MMV1593541, MMV020752, MMV396785) with rapid-growth inhibitory activity having IC50 values ≤ 0.3 µM at 12 and 24 h. Similarly, we determined nine slow-acting compounds (MMV159340, MMV1634492, MMV1581558, MMV689758, MMV1593540, MMV394033, MMV019724, MMV000725, MMV1557856) having IC50 values ≤ 0.5 µM at 72 and 96 h. Furthermore, the stage-specific action of the two most potent fast-acting compounds (MMV1593541 and MMV020752) against rings, trophozoites, and schizonts at 48 h of exposure revealed that ring-stage parasites showed reduced IC50 values compared to mature stage forms. Therefore, our study demonstrates for the first time the identification of the most potent fast and slow-acting compounds from PRB against blood-stage infection, suggesting its utility in clinics and considering it as a partner drug in combination therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinoth Rajendran
- Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, 605014, India.
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Schärer A, Biendl S, Keiser J. Trichuris muris egg-hatching assay for anthelminthic drug discovery and characterization. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2023; 23:63-70. [PMID: 37856948 PMCID: PMC10590722 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2023.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Trichuriasis is a neglected tropical disease widely distributed among tropical and sub-tropical areas and associated with poverty and lack of access to safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene. Existing drugs have limited efficacy and face a constant risk of developing resistance, necessitating the search for alternative treatments. However, drug discovery efforts are sparse and little research has been performed on anthelminthic effects on embryonated eggs, the infectious life stage of Trichuris spp. We examined bacterial species dependent egg hatching of the murine model parasite Trichuris muris and identified Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacter hormaechei effective as hatching inducers, resulting in hatching yields of 50-70%. Streptococcus salivarius, reported to be associated with reduced drug efficacy of ivermectin-albendazole coadministration in Trichuris trichiura infected patients, did not promote egg hatching in vitro. We optimized hatching conditions using E. coli grown in luria broth or brain-heart infusion media to reach consistently high hatching yields to provide a sensitive, robust and simple egg-hatching assay. Oxantel pamoate demonstrated the strongest potency in preventing hatching, with an EC50 value of 2-4 μM after 24 h, while pyrantel pamoate, levamisole and tribendimidine exhibited only moderate to weak inhibitory effects. Conversely, all tested benzimidazoles and macrolide anthelminthics as well as emodepside failed to prevent hatching (EC50 > 100 μM). Our study demonstrates that egg-hatching assays complement larval and adult stage drug sensitivity assays, to expand knowledge about effects of current anthelminthics on Trichuris spp. Further, the developed T. muris egg-hatching assay provides a simple and cheap screening tool that could potentially lead to the discovery of novel anthelminthic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Schärer
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, CH-4123 Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, CH-4003, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Biendl
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, CH-4123 Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, CH-4003, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jennifer Keiser
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, CH-4123 Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, CH-4003, Basel, Switzerland.
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Agrawal P, Kumari S, Mohmmed A, Malhotra P, Sharma U, Sahal D. Identification of Novel, Potent, and Selective Compounds against Malaria Using Glideosomal-Associated Protein 50 as a Drug Target. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:38506-38523. [PMID: 37867646 PMCID: PMC10586260 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c05323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
Phylum apicomplexan consists of parasites, such as Plasmodium and Toxoplasma. These obligate intracellular parasites enter host cells via an energy-dependent process using specialized machinery, called the glideosome. In the present study, we used Plasmodium falciparum GAP50, a glideosome-associated protein, as a target to screen 951 different compounds from diverse chemical libraries. Using different screening methods, eight compounds (Hayatinine, Curine, MMV689758 (Bedaquiline), MMV1634402 (Brilacidin), and MMV688271, MMV782353, MMV642550, and USINB4-124-8) were identified, which showed promising binding affinity (KD < 75 μM), along with submicromolar range antiparasitic efficacy and selectivity index > 100 fold for malaria parasite. These eight compounds were effective against Chloroquine-resistant PfINDO and Artemisinin-resistant PfCam3.1R359T strains. Studies on the effect of these compounds at asexual blood stages showed that these eight compounds act differently at different developmental stages, indicating the binding of these compounds to other Plasmodium proteins, in addition to PfGAP50. We further studied the effects of compounds (Bedaquiline and USINB4-124-8) in an in vivoPlasmodium berghei mouse model of malaria. Importantly, the oral delivery of Bedaquiline (50 mg/kg b. wt.) showed substantial suppression of parasitemia, and three out of seven mice were cured of the infection. Thus, our study provides new scaffolds for the development of antimalarials that can act at multiple Plasmodium lifecycle stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prakhar Agrawal
- International
Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Surekha Kumari
- Chemical
Technology Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan
Bioresource Technology, Palampur 176061, India
- Academy
of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201002, India
| | - Asif Mohmmed
- International
Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Pawan Malhotra
- International
Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Upendra Sharma
- Chemical
Technology Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan
Bioresource Technology, Palampur 176061, India
- Academy
of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201002, India
| | - Dinkar Sahal
- International
Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India
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Easland E, Biendl S, Keiser J. Development of a hookworm egg hatching assay to determine the ovicidal effects of anthelminthics. Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:157. [PMID: 37143169 PMCID: PMC10161531 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-023-05771-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Few anthelminthics are currently available, manifesting the urgent need for new treatment options. In vitro profiling of current anthelminthics against larval and adult stage helminths displayed varying effects on closely related worm species and between life stages of the same species. Conversely, limited research has been performed on the egg stage of human hookworms, and the effects of investigational compounds on the egg stage are not routinely assessed. METHODS We profiled the development and hatching of Heligmosomoides polygyrus, Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus eggs isolated from rodent faeces in liquid media with various nutrient levels, osmolar concentrations, and acidities in dependence on incubation temperature and light exposure. Incubation conditions were optimised to allow the study of drug effect on immature and embryonated eggs. We analysed concentration-effect relationships of commercially available anthelminthics over 72 h. RESULTS Rapid embryonation and hatching were observed at room temperature with and without light exposure without nutrient supplementation in a wide range of acidities. Hookworms hatched optimally at room temperature in PBS achieving > 75% hatching over 34 h. Developmental delays were seen when eggs were stored at 4 °C with no effect on viability. Similar delays were also seen with increased osmolar concentrations resulting in decreased viability. Benzimidazole anthelminthics effectively reduced the viability and prevented hatching of hookworm eggs, with albendazole and thiabendazole eliciting particularly potent effects at EC50 values below 1 µM. Macrolide anthelminthics as well as emodepside, oxantel pamoate, and pyrantel pamoate were inactive while monepantel, levamisole, and tribendimidine displayed varied potencies among the hookworm species. CONCLUSION The presented egg-hatching assay will complement ongoing anthelminthic drug discovery and allow a full characterisation of drug activity against all life stages. In the development and application of the egg-hatching assay, good accordance was observed between the three hookworm species evaluated. Marketed anthelminthics show differences of drug action compared to larval and adult stages highlighting the importance of profiling drug activity against all life stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin Easland
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, 4123, Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4003, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Biendl
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, 4123, Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4003, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jennifer Keiser
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, 4123, Allschwil, Switzerland.
- University of Basel, 4003, Basel, Switzerland.
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Biendl S, Häberli C, Chen G, Wang W, Zhong L, Saunders J, Pham T, Wang X, Wu J, Charman SA, Vennerstrom JL, Keiser J. In Vitro and In Vivo Antischistosomal Activity Profiling and Pharmacokinetics of Ozonide Carboxylic Acids. ACS Infect Dis 2023; 9:643-652. [PMID: 36794836 PMCID: PMC10858445 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.2c00581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
Praziquantel, the only drug in clinical use for the treatment and control of schistosomiasis, is inactive against developing infections. Ozonides are synthetic peroxide derivatives inspired by the naturally occurring artemisinin and show particularly promising activity against juvenile schistosomes. We conducted an in-depth characterization of the in vitro and in vivo antischistosomal activity and pharmacokinetics of lead ozonide carboxylic acid OZ418 and four of its active analogs. In vitro, the ozonides featured rapid and consistent activity against schistosomula and adult schistosomes at double-digit micromolar EC50 values. Potency did not vary considerably between Schistosoma spp. The zwitterionic OZ740 and OZ772 were more active in vivo compared to their non-amphoteric carboxylic acids OZ418 and OZ748, despite their much lower systemic plasma exposure (AUC). The most active compound in vivo was ethyl ester OZ780, which was rapidly transformed to its parent zwitterion OZ740 and achieved ED50 values of 35 ± 2.4 and 29 ± 2.4 mg/kg against adult and juvenile Schistosoma mansoni, respectively. Ozonide carboxylic acids represent promising candidates for further optimization and development due to their good efficacy against both life stages together with their broad activity range against all relevant parasite species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Biendl
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, CH-4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, CH-4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Cécile Häberli
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, CH-4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, CH-4003 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Gong Chen
- Centre for Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Wen Wang
- Centre for Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Longjin Zhong
- Centre for Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Jessica Saunders
- Centre for Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Thao Pham
- Centre for Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Xiaofang Wang
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 986125, United States of America
| | - Jianbo Wu
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 986125, United States of America
| | - Susan A Charman
- Centre for Drug Candidate Optimisation, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Jonathan L Vennerstrom
- College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 986125, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Keiser
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, CH-4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, CH-4003 Basel, Switzerland
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de Oliveira HC, Castelli RF, Reis FCG, Samby K, Nosanchuk JD, Alves LR, Rodrigues ML. Screening of the Pandemic Response Box Reveals an Association between Antifungal Effects of MMV1593537 and the Cell Wall of Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus deuterogattii, and Candida auris. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0060122. [PMID: 35471056 PMCID: PMC9241760 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00601-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an urgent unmet need for novel antifungals. In this study, we searched for novel antifungal activities in the Pandemic Response Box, a collection of 400 structurally diverse compounds in various phases of drug discovery. We identified five molecules which could control the growth of Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus deuterogattii, and the emerging global threat Candida auris. After eliminating compounds which demonstrated paradoxical antifungal effects or toxicity to mammalian macrophages, we selected compound MMV1593537 as a nontoxic, fungicidal molecule for further characterization of antifungal activity. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that MMV1593537 affected cellular division in all three pathogens. In Cryptococcus, MMV1593537 caused a reduction in capsular dimensions. Treatment with MMV1593537 resulted in increased detection of cell wall chitooligomers in these three species. Since chitooligomers are products of the enzymatic hydrolysis of chitin, we investigated whether surface chitinase activity was altered in response to MMV1593537 exposure. We observed peaks of enzyme activity in C. neoformans and C. deuterogattii in response to MMV1593537. We did not detect any surface chitinase activity in C. auris. Our results suggest that MMV1593537 is a promising, nontoxic fungicide whose mechanism of action, at least in Cryptococcus spp, requires chitinase-mediated hydrolysis of chitin. IMPORTANCE The development of novel antifungals is a matter of urgency. In this study, we evaluated antifungal activities in a collection of 400 molecules, using highly lethal fungal pathogens as targets. One of these molecules, namely, MMV1593537, was not toxic to host cells and controlled the growth of isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans, C. deuterogattii, C. gattii, Candida auris, C. albicans, C. parapsilosis, and C. krusei. We tested the mechanisms of antifungal action of MMV1593537 in the Cryptococcus and C. auris models and concluded that the compound affects the cell wall, a structure which is essential for fungal life. At least in Cryptococcus, this effect involved chitinase, an enzyme which is required for remodeling the cell wall. Our results suggest that MMV1593537 is a candidate for future antifungal development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rafael F. Castelli
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Parasitária, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Flavia C. G. Reis
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil
- Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Saúde (CDTS), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Joshua D. Nosanchuk
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Division of Infectious Diseases, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Lysangela R. Alves
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Marcio L. Rodrigues
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Ravaynia PS, Biendl S, Grassi F, Keiser J, Hierlemann A, Modena MM. Real-time and automated monitoring of antischistosomal drug activity profiles for screening of compound libraries. iScience 2022; 25:104087. [PMID: 35378863 PMCID: PMC8976133 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease that affects over 200 million people annually. As the antischistosomal drug pipeline is currently empty, repurposing of compound libraries has become a source for accelerating drug development, which demands the implementation of high-throughput and efficient screening strategies. Here, we present a parallelized impedance-based platform for continuous and automated viability evaluation of Schistosoma mansoni schistosomula in 128 microwells during 72 h to identify antischistosomal hits in vitro. By initially screening 57 repurposed compounds against larvae, five drugs are identified, which reduce parasite viability by more than 70%. The activity profiles of the selected drugs are then investigated via real-time dose-response monitoring, and four compounds reveal high potency and rapid action, which renders them suitable candidates for follow-up tests against adult parasites. The study shows that our device is a reliable tool for real-time drug screening analysis of libraries to identify new promising therapeutics against schistosomiasis. Scalable, plastic microwell chip with integrated platinum electrodes Automated impedance-based recording of 128 microwell units in parallel Continuous monitoring of in vitro drug library efficacy on schistosomula for 72 h Identification of four fast-acting antischistosomal drugs for in vivo testing
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo S Ravaynia
- Bioengineering Laboratory, Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Biendl
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, University of Basel, Socinstrasse 57, 4051 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Francesco Grassi
- Centre for Microsystems Technology, Department of Electronics and Information Systems, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 126, 9052 Gent, Belgium
| | - Jennifer Keiser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, University of Basel, Socinstrasse 57, 4051 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Hierlemann
- Bioengineering Laboratory, Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Mario M Modena
- Bioengineering Laboratory, Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
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Samby K, Besson D, Dutta A, Patra B, Doy A, Glossop P, Mills J, Whitlock G, Hooft van Huijsduijnen R, Monaco A, Bilbe G, Mowbray C, Perry B, Adam A, Wells TNC, Willis PA. The Pandemic Response Box─Accelerating Drug Discovery Efforts after Disease Outbreaks. ACS Infect Dis 2022; 8:713-720. [PMID: 35286809 PMCID: PMC9003238 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.1c00527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The current Covid-19 pandemic has underlined the need for a more coordinated and forward-looking investment in the search for new medicines targeting emerging health care threats. Repositioning currently approved drugs is a popular approach to any new emerging disease, but it represents a first wave of response. Behind this would be a second wave of more specifically designed therapies based on activities against specific molecular targets or in phenotypic assays. Following the successful deployment and uptake of previous open access compound collections, we assembled the Pandemic Response Box, a collection of 400 compounds to facilitate drug discovery in emerging infectious disease. These are based on public domain information on chemotypes currently in discovery and early development which have been shown to have useful activities and were prioritized by medicinal chemistry experts. They are freely available to the community as a pharmacological test set with the understanding that data will be shared rapidly in the public domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirandeep Samby
- Medicines for Malaria Venture, P.O. Box 1826, 20 Route de Pré-Bois, 1215 Geneva 15, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Besson
- Medicines for Malaria Venture, P.O. Box 1826, 20 Route de Pré-Bois, 1215 Geneva 15, Switzerland
| | - Anirban Dutta
- TCG Life Sciences, Block BN, Plot 7 Salt Lake Electronics Complex Sector V, Kolkata, West Bengal 700091, India
| | - Buddhadev Patra
- TCG Life Sciences, Block BN, Plot 7 Salt Lake Electronics Complex Sector V, Kolkata, West Bengal 700091, India
| | - Angelique Doy
- Medicines for Malaria Venture, P.O. Box 1826, 20 Route de Pré-Bois, 1215 Geneva 15, Switzerland
| | - Paul Glossop
- Sandexis, Innovation House, Discovery Park, Sandwich, Kent CT13 9FF, United Kingdom
| | - James Mills
- Sandexis, Innovation House, Discovery Park, Sandwich, Kent CT13 9FF, United Kingdom
| | - Gavin Whitlock
- Sandexis, Innovation House, Discovery Park, Sandwich, Kent CT13 9FF, United Kingdom
| | | | - Alessandra Monaco
- Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative, 15 Chemin Camille-Vidar, 1202, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Graeme Bilbe
- Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative, 15 Chemin Camille-Vidar, 1202, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Charles Mowbray
- Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative, 15 Chemin Camille-Vidar, 1202, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Perry
- Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative, 15 Chemin Camille-Vidar, 1202, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Anna Adam
- Medicines for Malaria Venture, P.O. Box 1826, 20 Route de Pré-Bois, 1215 Geneva 15, Switzerland
| | - Timothy N. C. Wells
- Medicines for Malaria Venture, P.O. Box 1826, 20 Route de Pré-Bois, 1215 Geneva 15, Switzerland
| | - Paul A. Willis
- Medicines for Malaria Venture, P.O. Box 1826, 20 Route de Pré-Bois, 1215 Geneva 15, Switzerland
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