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Nogueira IPM, Costa GMJ, Lacerda SMDSN. Avian iPSC Derivation to Recover Threatened Wild Species: A Comprehensive Review in Light of Well-Established Protocols. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:220. [PMID: 38254390 PMCID: PMC10812705 DOI: 10.3390/ani14020220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) were first generated by Yamanaka in 2006, revolutionizing research by overcoming limitations imposed by the use of embryonic stem cells. In terms of the conservation of endangered species, iPSC technology presents itself as a viable alternative for the manipulation of target genetics without compromising specimens. Although iPSCs have been successfully generated for various species, their application in nonmammalian species, particularly avian species, requires further in-depth investigation to cover the diversity of wild species at risk and their different protocol requirements. This study aims to provide an overview of the workflow for iPSC induction, comparing well-established protocols in humans and mice with the limited information available for avian species. Here, we discuss the somatic cell sources to be reprogrammed, genetic factors, delivery methods, enhancers, a brief history of achievements in avian iPSC derivation, the main approaches for iPSC characterization, and the future perspectives and challenges for the field. By examining the current protocols and state-of-the-art techniques employed in iPSC generation, we seek to contribute to the development of efficient and species-specific iPSC methodologies for at-risk avian species. The advancement of iPSC technology holds great promise for achieving in vitro germline competency and, consequently, addressing reproductive challenges in endangered species, providing valuable tools for basic research, bird genetic preservation and rescue, and the establishment of cryobanks for future conservation efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Samyra Maria dos Santos Nassif Lacerda
- Laboratory of Cellular Biology, Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, MG, Brazil; (I.P.M.N.); (G.M.J.C.)
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2
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Santos NL, Bustos SO, Reis PP, Chammas R, Andrade LNS. Extracellular Vesicle-Packaged miR-195-5p Sensitizes Melanoma to Targeted Therapy with Kinase Inhibitors. Cells 2023; 12:cells12091317. [PMID: 37174717 PMCID: PMC10177607 DOI: 10.3390/cells12091317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Management of advanced melanoma remains challenging, with most BRAF (B-Raf proto-oncogene, serine/threonine kinase)-mutated metastatic patients relapsing within a few months upon MAPK inhibitors treatment. Modulation of tumor-derived extracellular vesicle (EVs) cargo with enrichment of antitumoral molecules is a promising strategy to impair tumor progression and increase treatment response. Herein, we report that restored expression of miR-195-5p, down-regulated in melanoma favoring drug resistance, increases the release of EVs enriched in the tumor suppressor miRNAs, miR-195-5p, miR-152-3p, and miR-202-3p. Incorporating these EVs by bystander tumor cells resulted in decreased proliferation and viability, accompanied by a reduction in CCND1 and YAP1 mRNA levels. Upon treatment with MAPK inhibitors, miR-195 EVs significantly decreased BCL2-L1 protein levels and increased cell death ratio and treatment efficacy. Additionally, EVs exogenously loaded with miR-195-5p by electroporation reduced tumor volume in vivo and impaired engraftment and growth of xenografts implanted with melanoma cells exposed to MAPK inhibitors. Our study shows that miR-195-5p antitumoral activity can be spread to bystander cells through EVs, improving melanoma response to targeted therapy and revealing a promising EV-based strategy to increase clinical response in patients harboring BRAF mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalia L Santos
- Center for Translational Research in Oncology (LIM24), Instituto do Câncer do Estado de São Paulo, Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Comprehensive Center for Precision Oncology, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 01246-000, Brazil
| | - Silvina O Bustos
- Center for Translational Research in Oncology (LIM24), Instituto do Câncer do Estado de São Paulo, Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Comprehensive Center for Precision Oncology, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 01246-000, Brazil
| | - Patricia P Reis
- Department of Surgery and Orthopedics and Experimental Research Unity (UNIPEX), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu 18618-687, Brazil
| | - Roger Chammas
- Center for Translational Research in Oncology (LIM24), Instituto do Câncer do Estado de São Paulo, Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Comprehensive Center for Precision Oncology, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 01246-000, Brazil
| | - Luciana N S Andrade
- Center for Translational Research in Oncology (LIM24), Instituto do Câncer do Estado de São Paulo, Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Comprehensive Center for Precision Oncology, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 01246-000, Brazil
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3
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Pietrobono S, De Paolo R, Mangiameli D, Marranci A, Battisti I, Franchin C, Arrigoni G, Melisi D, Poliseno L, Stecca B. p38 MAPK-dependent phosphorylation of transcription factor SOX2 promotes an adaptive response to BRAF inhibitors in melanoma cells. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102353. [PMID: 35944584 PMCID: PMC9463537 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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4
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Turdo A, D'Accardo C, Glaviano A, Porcelli G, Colarossi C, Colarossi L, Mare M, Faldetta N, Modica C, Pistone G, Bongiorno MR, Todaro M, Stassi G. Targeting Phosphatases and Kinases: How to Checkmate Cancer. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:690306. [PMID: 34778245 PMCID: PMC8581442 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.690306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Metastatic disease represents the major cause of death in oncologic patients worldwide. Accumulating evidence have highlighted the relevance of a small population of cancer cells, named cancer stem cells (CSCs), in the resistance to therapies, as well as cancer recurrence and metastasis. Standard anti-cancer treatments are not always conclusively curative, posing an urgent need to discover new targets for an effective therapy. Kinases and phosphatases are implicated in many cellular processes, such as proliferation, differentiation and oncogenic transformation. These proteins are crucial regulators of intracellular signaling pathways mediating multiple cellular activities. Therefore, alterations in kinases and phosphatases functionality is a hallmark of cancer. Notwithstanding the role of kinases and phosphatases in cancer has been widely investigated, their aberrant activation in the compartment of CSCs is nowadays being explored as new potential Achille's heel to strike. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the major protein kinases and phosphatases pathways by which CSCs can evade normal physiological constraints on survival, growth, and invasion. Moreover, we discuss the potential of inhibitors of these proteins in counteracting CSCs expansion during cancer development and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Turdo
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties (PROMISE), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Caterina D'Accardo
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties (PROMISE), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonino Glaviano
- Department of Surgical, Oncological and Stomatological Sciences (DICHIRONS), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Gaetana Porcelli
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties (PROMISE), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Cristina Colarossi
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Mediterranean Institute of Oncology (IOM), Catania, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Colarossi
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Mediterranean Institute of Oncology (IOM), Catania, Italy
| | - Marzia Mare
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Mediterranean Institute of Oncology (IOM), Catania, Italy
| | | | - Chiara Modica
- Department of Surgical, Oncological and Stomatological Sciences (DICHIRONS), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Pistone
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties (PROMISE), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Maria Rita Bongiorno
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties (PROMISE), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Matilde Todaro
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties (PROMISE), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.,Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Policlinico (AOUP), Palermo, Italy
| | - Giorgio Stassi
- Department of Surgical, Oncological and Stomatological Sciences (DICHIRONS), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
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Dorris ER, O'Neill A, Treacy A, Klocker H, Teltsh O, Kay E, Watson RW. The transcription factor CUX1 negatively regulates invasion in castrate resistant prostate cancer. Oncotarget 2020; 11:846-857. [PMID: 32180898 PMCID: PMC7061738 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.27494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Metastatic prostate cancer is treated with androgen ablation therapy but progress to castrate resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). This study aimed to investigate the role of CUX1 in CRPC using clinical samples and in vitro models. CUX1 expression was increased in androgen-independent cells compared to androgen-sensitive cells. The multi-isoform nature of CUX1 makes it difficult to assay in tissue microarrays as there is no epitope able to distinguish the many isoforms for immunohistochemistry. Using surrogate markers, we found no differential expression between castrate resistant and local hormone naïve tissue. However, differences have been demonstrated at the transcript level. In androgen-sensitive cells, migration, but not invasion, increased following CUX1 knockdown. Conversely, in androgen-independent cells, invasion was increased. This observed difference in invasion capacity is not E-cadherin mediated, as CUX1 knockdown increases the expression of E-cadherin in both cell lines with no inter-cell line difference. Cells expressed different ratios of p110/p200 isoforms depending on androgen status and cathepsin L was only detectable in androgen-sensitive cells. MMP3 is upregulated in the androgen-independent cells. Rather than a simple presence or absence of CUX1, the relative balance of CUX1 isoforms and their interplay may be a significant factor in the functional role of CUX1 in CRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma R Dorris
- UCD School of Medicine, Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Amanda O'Neill
- UCD School of Medicine, Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Ann Treacy
- Pathology Department, Mater Private Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Helmut Klocker
- Department of Urology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Omri Teltsh
- UCD School of Medicine, Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Elaine Kay
- Department of Pathology, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - R William Watson
- UCD School of Medicine, Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
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6
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Dorris ER, Linehan E, Trenkmann M, Veale DJ, Fearon U, Wilson AG. Association of the Rheumatoid Arthritis Severity Variant rs26232 with the Invasive Activity of Synovial Fibroblasts. Cells 2019; 8:cells8101300. [PMID: 31652652 PMCID: PMC6829881 DOI: 10.3390/cells8101300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
rs26232, located in intron one of C5orf30, is associated with the susceptibility to and severity of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Here, we investigate the relationship between this variant and the biological activities of rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts (RASFs). RASFs were isolated from the knee joints of 33 RA patients. The rs26232 genotype was determined and cellular migration, invasion, and apoptosis were compared using in vitro techniques. The production of adhesion molecules, chemokines, and proteases was measured by ELISA or flow cytometry. Cohort genotypes were CC n = 16; CT n = 14; TT n = 3. In comparison with the RASFs of the CT genotype, the CC genotype showed a 1.48-fold greater invasiveness in vitro (p = 0.02), 1.6-fold higher expression intracellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 (p = 0.001), and 5-fold IFN-γ inducible protein-10 (IP-10) (p = 0.01). There was no association of the rs26232 genotype with the expression levels of either total C5orf30 mRNA or any of the three transcript variants. The rs26232 C allele, which has previously been associated with both the risk and severity of RA, is associated with greater invasive activity of RASFs in vitro, and with higher expression of ICAM-1 and IP-10. In resting RASFs, rs26232 is not a quantitative trait locus for C5orf30 mRNA, indicating a more complex mechanism underlying the genotype‒phenotype relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma R Dorris
- University College Dublin Centre for Arthritis Research, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin D04 W6F6, Ireland.
| | - Eimear Linehan
- University College Dublin Centre for Arthritis Research, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin D04 W6F6, Ireland.
| | - Michelle Trenkmann
- University College Dublin Centre for Arthritis Research, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin D04 W6F6, Ireland.
| | - Douglas J Veale
- University College Dublin Centre for Arthritis Research, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin D04 W6F6, Ireland.
| | - Ursula Fearon
- Molecular Rheumatology, School of Medicine, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin D06 R590, Ireland.
| | - Anthony G Wilson
- University College Dublin Centre for Arthritis Research, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin D04 W6F6, Ireland.
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7
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Basu D, Salgado CM, Patel JR, Zabec J, Hoehl RM, Bauer B, Reyes-Múgica M. Pluripotency markers are differentially induced by IGF1 and bFGF in cells from patients' lesions of large/giant congenital melanocytic nevi. Biomark Res 2019; 7:2. [PMID: 30675361 PMCID: PMC6332894 DOI: 10.1186/s40364-018-0152-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Factors regulating transcription of pluripotency genes in congenital nevo-melanocytes are not known. Nevo-melanocytes belong somewhere in-between the ends of a spectrum where the normal epidermal melanocyte represents one end and a melanoma cell with multiple genetic abnormalities represents the other. Cells from large/giant congenital nevi (L/GCMN), unlike normal melanocytes, grow colonies on soft agar and express pluripotency markers, similar to melanoma cells. In this study normal melanocytes, SKMEL28 melanoma cells and nevo-melanocytes isolated from three L/GCMN patients were exposed to niche factors bFGF and IGF1 in vitro at physiological doses, and expression of a panel of pluripotency markers was determined by RT-PCR. While normal melanocytes did not show any significant transcriptional change in the genes studied, bFGF induced transcription of Sox2 and Bmi1 in melanoma cells. Patients' cells showed differential expression, with Sox10 being common to C76N and PD1N, while only Sox2 and Bmi1 were upregulated in C139N. IGF1 on the other hand induced unique sets of genes in each individual sample. We conclude that expression of pluripotency genes in L/GCMN cells is affected by niche factors bFGF and IGF1; however, each individual growth factor induced a unique set of genes in a patient's cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipanjan Basu
- Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15224 USA
| | - Cláudia M Salgado
- Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15224 USA
| | - Janki R Patel
- 2Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA USA
| | - Joie Zabec
- 2Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA USA
| | - Ryan M Hoehl
- 2Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA USA
| | - Bruce Bauer
- 3Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, North Shore University Health System, Northbrook, IL USA
| | - Miguel Reyes-Múgica
- Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15224 USA
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Dorris ER, Tazzyman SJ, Moylett J, Ramamoorthi N, Hackney J, Townsend M, Muthana M, Lewis MJ, Pitzalis C, Wilson AG. The Autoimmune Susceptibility Gene C5orf30 Regulates Macrophage-Mediated Resolution of Inflammation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 202:1069-1078. [PMID: 30659109 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1801155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Genetic variants in C5orf30 have been associated with development of the autoimmune conditions primary biliary cirrhosis and rheumatoid arthritis. In rheumatoid arthritis, C5orf30 expression is cell-specific, with highest expression found in macrophages and synovial fibroblasts. C5orf30 is highly expressed in inflamed joints and is a negative regulator of tissue damage in a mouse model of inflammatory arthritis. Transcriptomic analysis from ultrasound-guided synovial biopsy of inflamed joints in a well characterized clinical cohort of newly diagnosed, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs-naive rheumatoid arthritis patients was used to determine the clinical association of C5orf30 expression with disease activity. A combined molecular and computational biology approach was used to elucidate C5orf30 function in macrophages both in vitro and in vivo. Synovial expression of C5orf30 is inversely correlated with both clinical measures of rheumatoid arthritis disease activity and with synovial TNF mRNA expression. C5orf30 plays a role in regulating macrophage phenotype and is differentially turned over in inflammatory and anti-inflammatory macrophages. Inhibition of C5orf30 reduces wound healing/repair-associated functions of macrophages, reduces signaling required for resolution of inflammation, and decreases secretion of anti-inflammatory mediators. In an animal model of wound healing (zebrafish), C5orf30 inhibition increases the recruitment of macrophages to the wound site. Finally, we demonstrate that C5orf30 skews macrophage immunometabolism, demonstrating a mechanism for C5orf30-mediated immune regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma R Dorris
- University College Dublin Centre for Arthritis Research, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin D04 W6F6, Ireland;
| | | | - John Moylett
- University College Dublin Centre for Arthritis Research, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin D04 W6F6, Ireland
| | - Nandhini Ramamoorthi
- Biomarker Discovery OMNI, Genentech Research and Early Development, San Francisco, CA 94080; and
| | - Jason Hackney
- Biomarker Discovery OMNI, Genentech Research and Early Development, San Francisco, CA 94080; and
| | - Michael Townsend
- Biomarker Discovery OMNI, Genentech Research and Early Development, San Francisco, CA 94080; and
| | | | - Myles J Lewis
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry and Barts Health National Health Service Trust, Queen Mary University of London, London EC1M 6BQ, United Kingdom
| | - Costantino Pitzalis
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry and Barts Health National Health Service Trust, Queen Mary University of London, London EC1M 6BQ, United Kingdom
| | - Anthony G Wilson
- University College Dublin Centre for Arthritis Research, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin D04 W6F6, Ireland
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Dorris E, O'Neill A, Hanrahan K, Treacy A, Watson RW. MARCKS promotes invasion and is associated with biochemical recurrence in prostate cancer. Oncotarget 2017; 8:72021-72030. [PMID: 29069765 PMCID: PMC5641108 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.18894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Overtreatment of low-grade prostate cancer is a recognised problem for clinicians and patients. However, under-treatment runs the risk of missing the opportunity for cure in those who could benefit. Identification of new biomarkers of disease progression, including metastases, is required to better stratify and appropriately treat these patients. The ability to predict if prostate cancer will recur is an important clinical question that would impact treatment options for patients. Studies in other cancers have associated MARCKS with metastasis. METHODS Tissue microarrays of local prostatectomy samples from a cohort of biochemical recurrent and non-biochemical recurrent tumours were assayed for MARCKS protein expression. Prostate cancer cell lines were transfected with siRNA targeting MARCKS or a control and functional endpoints of migration, invasion, proliferation, viability and apoptosis were measured. Actin was visualised by fluorescent microscopy and evidence of a cadherin switch and activation of the AKT pathway were assayed. RESULTS MARCKS was upregulated in biochemical recurrent patients compared to non-biochemical recurrent. Knockdown of MARCKS reduced migration and invasion of prostate cancer cells, reduced MMP9 mRNA expression, as well as decreasing cell spreading and increased cell:cell adhesion in prostate cancer cell colonies. Knockdown of MARCKS had no effect on proliferation, viability or apoptosis of the prostate cancer cells. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, MARCKS promotes migration and invasion and is associated with biochemical recurrence in localised prostate cancer tumours. The mechanisms by which this occurs have yet to be fully elucidated but lack of a cadherin switch indicates it is not via epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Actin rearrangement indicates that MARCKS promotes invasion through regulating the architecture of the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Dorris
- UCD School of Medicine, Conway Institute for Biomedical and Biomolecular Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Amanda O'Neill
- UCD School of Medicine, Conway Institute for Biomedical and Biomolecular Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Karen Hanrahan
- UCD School of Medicine, Conway Institute for Biomedical and Biomolecular Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Ann Treacy
- Pathology Department, Mater Private Hospital, Dublin 7, Ireland
| | - R William Watson
- UCD School of Medicine, Conway Institute for Biomedical and Biomolecular Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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