1
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Kundu M, Das S, Dey A, Mandal M. Dual perspective on autophagy in glioma: Detangling the dichotomous mechanisms of signaling pathways for therapeutic insights. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2024:189168. [PMID: 39121913 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2024.189168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Revised: 06/25/2024] [Accepted: 08/05/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024]
Abstract
Autophagy is a normal physiological process that aids the recycling of cellular nutrients, assisting the cells to cope with stressed conditions. However, autophagy's effect on cancer, including glioma, is uncertain and involves complicated molecular mechanisms. Several contradictory reports indicate that autophagy may promote or suppress glioma growth and progression. Autophagy inhibitors potentiate the efficacy of chemotherapy or radiation therapy in glioma. Numerous compounds stimulate autophagy to cause glioma cell death. Autophagy is also involved in the therapeutic resistance of glioma. This review article aims to detangle the complicated molecular mechanism of autophagy to provide a better perception of the two-sided role of autophagy in glioma and its therapeutic implications. The protein and epigenetic modulators of the cytoprotective and cytotoxic role of autophagy are described in this article. Moreover, several signaling pathways are associated with autophagy and its effects on glioma. We have reviewed the molecular pathways and highlighted the signaling axis involved in cytoprotective and cytotoxic autophagy. Additionally, this article discusses the role of autophagy in therapeutic resistance, including glioma stem cell maintenance and tumor microenvironment regulation. It also summarizes several investigations on the anti-glioma effects of autophagy modulators to understand the associated mechanisms and provide insights regarding its therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moumita Kundu
- School of Medical Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India; Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Brainware University, Barasat, India; Center for Multidisciplinary Research & Innovations, Brainware University, Barasat, India.
| | - Subhayan Das
- School of Medical Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India; Department of Allied Health Sciences, Brainware University, Barasat, India
| | - Ankita Dey
- School of Medical Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
| | - Mahitosh Mandal
- School of Medical Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India.
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2
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Qin Y, Xiong S, Ren J, Sethi G. Autophagy machinery in glioblastoma: The prospect of cell death crosstalk and drug resistance with bioinformatics analysis. Cancer Lett 2024; 580:216482. [PMID: 37977349 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2023.216482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Brain tumors are common malignancies with high mortality and morbidity in which glioblastoma (GB) is a grade IV astrocytoma with heterogeneous nature. The conventional therapeutics for the GB mainly include surgery and chemotherapy, however their efficacy has been compromised due to the aggressiveness of tumor cells. The dysregulation of cell death mechanisms, especially autophagy has been reported as a factor causing difficulties in cancer therapy. As a mechanism contributing to cell homeostasis, the autophagy process is hijacked by tumor cells for the purpose of aggravating cancer progression and drug resistance. The autophagy function is context-dependent and its role can be lethal or protective in cancer. The aim of the current paper is to highlight the role of autophagy in the regulation of GB progression. The cytotoxic function of autophagy can promote apoptosis and ferroptosis in GB cells and vice versa. Autophagy dysregulation can cause drug resistance and radioresistance in GB. Moreover, stemness can be regulated by autophagy and overall growth as well as metastasis are affected by autophagy. The various interventions including administration of synthetic/natural products and nanoplatforms can target autophagy. Therefore, autophagy can act as a promising target in GB therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Qin
- Department of Lab, Chifeng Cancer Hospital (The 2nd Afflicted Hospital of Chifeng University), Chifeng University, Chifeng City, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, 024000, China.
| | - Shengjun Xiong
- Department of Cardiology, Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Jun Ren
- Department of Cardiology, Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Gautam Sethi
- Department of Pharmacology, National University of Singapore, NUS Centre for Cancer Research, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, 16 Medical Drive, Singapore, 117600, Singapore.
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3
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Li D, Peng X, He G, Liu J, Li X, Lin W, Fang J, Li X, Yang S, Yang L, Li H. Crosstalk between autophagy and CSCs: molecular mechanisms and translational implications. Cell Death Dis 2023; 14:409. [PMID: 37422448 PMCID: PMC10329683 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-023-05929-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/10/2023]
Abstract
Cancer stem cells(CSCs) play a key role in regulating tumorigenesis, progression, as well as recurrence, and possess typical metabolic characteristics. Autophagy is a catabolic process that can aid cells to survive under stressful conditions such as nutrient deficiency and hypoxia. Although the role of autophagy in cancer cells has been extensively studied, CSCs possess unique stemness, and their potential relationship with autophagy has not been fully analyzed. This study summarizes the possible role of autophagy in the renewal, proliferation, differentiation, survival, metastasis, invasion, and treatment resistance of CSCs. It has been found that autophagy can contribute to the maintenance of CSC stemness, facilitate the tumor cells adapt to changes in the microenvironment, and promote tumor survival, whereas in some other cases autophagy acts as an important process involved in the deprivation of CSC stemness thus leading to tumor death. Mitophagy, which has emerged as another popular research area in recent years, has a great scope when explored together with stem cells. In this study, we have aimed to elaborate on the mechanism of action of autophagy in regulating the functions of CSCs to provide deeper insights for future cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dai Li
- Department of General Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110032, China
- Shenyang Clinical Medical Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Health Management of Early Digestive Cancer, Shenyang, 110032, China
| | - Xueqiang Peng
- Department of General Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110032, China
- Shenyang Clinical Medical Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Health Management of Early Digestive Cancer, Shenyang, 110032, China
| | - Guangpeng He
- Department of General Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110032, China
- Shenyang Clinical Medical Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Health Management of Early Digestive Cancer, Shenyang, 110032, China
| | - Jiaxing Liu
- Department of General Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110032, China
- Shenyang Clinical Medical Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Health Management of Early Digestive Cancer, Shenyang, 110032, China
| | - Xian Li
- Department of General Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110032, China
- Shenyang Clinical Medical Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Health Management of Early Digestive Cancer, Shenyang, 110032, China
| | - Weikai Lin
- Department of General Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110032, China
- Shenyang Clinical Medical Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Health Management of Early Digestive Cancer, Shenyang, 110032, China
| | - Jianjun Fang
- Department of General Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110032, China
- Shenyang Clinical Medical Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Health Management of Early Digestive Cancer, Shenyang, 110032, China
| | - Xinyu Li
- Department of General Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110032, China
- Shenyang Clinical Medical Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Health Management of Early Digestive Cancer, Shenyang, 110032, China
| | - Shuo Yang
- Department of General Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110032, China
- Shenyang Clinical Medical Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Health Management of Early Digestive Cancer, Shenyang, 110032, China
| | - Liang Yang
- Department of General Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110032, China.
- Shenyang Clinical Medical Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Health Management of Early Digestive Cancer, Shenyang, 110032, China.
| | - Hangyu Li
- Department of General Surgery, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110032, China.
- Shenyang Clinical Medical Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Health Management of Early Digestive Cancer, Shenyang, 110032, China.
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4
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Khan K, Gogonea V, Fox PL. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases of the multi-tRNA synthetase complex and their role in tumorigenesis. Transl Oncol 2022; 19:101392. [PMID: 35278792 PMCID: PMC8914993 DOI: 10.1016/j.tranon.2022.101392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 02/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In mammalian cells, 20 aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (AARS) catalyze the ligation of amino acids to their cognate tRNAs to generate aminoacylated-tRNAs. In higher eukaryotes, 9 of the 20 AARSs, along with 3 auxiliary proteins, join to form the cytoplasmic multi-tRNA synthetase complex (MSC). The complex is absent in prokaryotes, but evolutionary expansion of MSC constituents, primarily by addition of novel interacting domains, facilitates formation of subcomplexes that join to establish the holo-MSC. In some cases, environmental cues direct the release of constituents from the MSC which enables the execution of non-canonical, i.e., "moonlighting", functions distinct from their essential activities in protein translation. These activities are generally beneficial, but can also be deleterious to the cell. Elucidation of the non-canonical activities of several AARSs residing in the MSC suggest they are potential therapeutic targets for cancer, as well as metabolic and neurologic diseases. Here, we describe the role of MSC-resident AARSs in cancer progression, and the factors that regulate their release from the MSC. Also, we highlight recent developments in therapeutic modalities that target MSC AARSs for cancer prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishnendu Khan
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, United States of America.
| | - Valentin Gogonea
- Department of Chemistry, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH 44115, United States of America
| | - Paul L Fox
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, United States of America.
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Khan I, Baig MH, Mahfooz S, Rahim M, Karacam B, Elbasan EB, Ulasov I, Dong JJ, Hatiboglu MA. Deciphering the Role of Autophagy in Treatment of Resistance Mechanisms in Glioblastoma. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22031318. [PMID: 33525678 PMCID: PMC7865981 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22031318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a process essential for cellular energy consumption, survival, and defense mechanisms. The role of autophagy in several types of human cancers has been explicitly explained; however, the underlying molecular mechanism of autophagy in glioblastoma remains ambiguous. Autophagy is thought to be a “double-edged sword”, and its effect on tumorigenesis varies with cell type. On the other hand, autophagy may play a significant role in the resistance mechanisms against various therapies. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to gain insight into the molecular mechanisms deriving the autophagy-mediated therapeutic resistance and designing improved treatment strategies for glioblastoma. In this review, we discuss autophagy mechanisms, specifically its pro-survival and growth-suppressing mechanisms in glioblastomas. In addition, we try to shed some light on the autophagy-mediated activation of the cellular mechanisms supporting radioresistance and chemoresistance in glioblastoma. This review also highlights autophagy’s involvement in glioma stem cell behavior, underlining its role as a potential molecular target for therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imran Khan
- Department of Molecular Biology, Beykoz Institute of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Bezmialem Vakif University, Yalıköy Mahallesi, Beykoz, 34820 Istanbul, Turkey; (I.K.); (S.M.); (B.K.)
| | - Mohammad Hassan Baig
- Department of Family Medicine, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 06273, Korea;
| | - Sadaf Mahfooz
- Department of Molecular Biology, Beykoz Institute of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Bezmialem Vakif University, Yalıköy Mahallesi, Beykoz, 34820 Istanbul, Turkey; (I.K.); (S.M.); (B.K.)
| | - Moniba Rahim
- Department of Biosciences, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226026, India;
| | - Busra Karacam
- Department of Molecular Biology, Beykoz Institute of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Bezmialem Vakif University, Yalıköy Mahallesi, Beykoz, 34820 Istanbul, Turkey; (I.K.); (S.M.); (B.K.)
| | - Elif Burce Elbasan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Bezmialem Vakif University Medical School, Vatan Street, Fatih, 34093 Istanbul, Turkey;
| | - Ilya Ulasov
- Group of Experimental Biotherapy and Diagnostic, Institute for Regenerative Medicine, World-Class Research Center “Digital Biodesign and Personalized Healthcare”, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119991 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Jae-June Dong
- Department of Family Medicine, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 06273, Korea;
- Correspondence: (J.-J.D.); (M.A.H.)
| | - Mustafa Aziz Hatiboglu
- Department of Molecular Biology, Beykoz Institute of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Bezmialem Vakif University, Yalıköy Mahallesi, Beykoz, 34820 Istanbul, Turkey; (I.K.); (S.M.); (B.K.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Bezmialem Vakif University Medical School, Vatan Street, Fatih, 34093 Istanbul, Turkey;
- Correspondence: (J.-J.D.); (M.A.H.)
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6
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Zhang L, Yu H, Yuan Y, Yu JS, Lou Z, Xue Y, Liu Y. The necessity for standardization of glioma stem cell culture: a systematic review. Stem Cell Res Ther 2020; 11:84. [PMID: 32102678 PMCID: PMC7045630 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-020-01589-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cancer stem cell hypothesis is an old idea which has been revived in recent years for many cancers, including gliomas. However, this concept has become controversial due to a series of studies with conflicting results. METHODS A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed and the Web of Science database to analyze studies using serum-free medium and its components in glioma stem cells, glioma stem-like cells, glioma-initiating cells, or glioma neurosphere cultures. All the studies reviewed were published between 1970 and 2019. We found that no standardized culture method was used, and the data were incomparable due to differing culture conditions and the use of media with different components. CONCLUSIONS Here, we review the most commonly used serum-free media and added components for glioma stem cell culture while highlighting the function of each component used in the media. We emphasize the necessity for standardization of glioma stem cell culture and propose a standard culture medium to prevent bias in glioma stem cell research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, # 36 Sanhao Street, Heping District, Shenyang, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, USA.,Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, USA
| | - Hongwei Yu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, # 36 Sanhao Street, Heping District, Shenyang, China
| | - Yuhui Yuan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, # 36 Sanhao Street, Heping District, Shenyang, China
| | - John S Yu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Zhenkun Lou
- Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, USA
| | - Yixue Xue
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Life Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Yunhui Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, # 36 Sanhao Street, Heping District, Shenyang, China.
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7
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Quercetin and Sodium Butyrate Synergistically Increase Apoptosis in Rat C6 and Human T98G Glioblastoma Cells Through Inhibition of Autophagy. Neurochem Res 2019; 44:1715-1725. [PMID: 31011879 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-019-02802-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Revised: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the efficacy of quercetin (QCT) in combination with sodium butyrate (NaB) in enhancing apoptosis in rat C6 and human T98G glioblastoma cells though blockage of autophagy under nutrient-starvation. The most synergistic doses of the drugs were determined to be 25 µM QCT and 1 mM NaB in both cell lines. After QCT and QCT + NaB treatments, autophagy quantification with acridine orange staining showed a drastic decrease in protective autophagy in the cells under nutrient-starvation. Decrease in autophagy was correlated with decreases in expression of Beclin-1 and LC3B II. Combination treatment increased the morphological signs of apoptosis including membrane blebbing, nuclear fragmentation, and chromatin condensation. Annexin V staining was also performed for detection and quantification of increases in apoptosis. Western blotting results showed that combination of QCT and NaB increased apoptosis by decreasing anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 and increasing pro-apoptotic Bax, decreasing survivin, activating caspase-3, and degrading poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). This study demonstrated the therapeutic potentials of a novel combination therapy in inhibiting protective autophagy to enhance apoptosis in rat C6 and human T98G glioblastoma cells.
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8
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Taylor MA, Das BC, Ray SK. Targeting autophagy for combating chemoresistance and radioresistance in glioblastoma. Apoptosis 2018; 23:563-575. [PMID: 30171377 PMCID: PMC6193815 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-018-1480-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved catabolic process that plays an essential role in maintaining cellular homeostasis by degrading unneeded cell components. When exposed to hostile environments, such as hypoxia or nutrient starvation, cells hyperactivate autophagy in an effort to maintain their longevity. In densely packed solid tumors, such as glioblastoma, autophagy has been found to run rampant due to a lack of oxygen and nutrients. In recent years, targeting autophagy as a way to strengthen current glioblastoma treatment has shown promising results. However, that protective autophagy inhibition or autophagy overactivation is more beneficial, is still being debated. Protective autophagy inhibition would lower a cell's previously activated defense mechanism, thereby increasing its sensitivity to treatment. Autophagy overactivation would cause cell death through lysosomal overactivation, thus introducing another cell death pathway in addition to apoptosis. Both methods have been proven effective in the treatment of solid tumors. This systematic review article highlights scenarios where both autophagy inhibition and activation have proven effective in combating chemoresistance and radioresistance in glioblastoma, and how autophagy may be best utilized for glioblastoma therapy in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A Taylor
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Building 2, Room C11, 6439 Garners Ferry Road, Columbia, SC, 29209, USA
| | - Bhaskar C Das
- Departments of Medicine and Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Swapan K Ray
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Building 2, Room C11, 6439 Garners Ferry Road, Columbia, SC, 29209, USA.
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9
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Yu Q, Xue Y, Liu J, Xi Z, Li Z, Liu Y. Fibronectin Promotes the Malignancy of Glioma Stem-Like Cells Via Modulation of Cell Adhesion, Differentiation, Proliferation and Chemoresistance. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 11:130. [PMID: 29706869 PMCID: PMC5908975 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioma stem-like cells (GSCs) are regarded as the sources of oncogenesis, recurrence, invasion and chemoresistance in malignant gliomas. Growing evidence suggests that the microenvironment surrounding GSCs interacts with tumor cells to influence biological behavior; however, the functional mechanisms involved are still unclear. In the present study, we investigated the modulation of GSCs triggered by fibronectin (FN), a main component of the extracellular matrix (ECM), in terms of cell adhesion, differentiation, proliferation and chemoresistance. We demonstrated that pre-coated FN prompted increased adherence by GSCs, with increased matrix metallopeptidases (MMPs)-2 and -9 expression, in a concentration-dependent manner. Decreases in sox-2 and nestin levels, and increased levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and β-tubulin were also found in GSCs, indicating cell differentiation driven by FN. Further investigation revealed that FN promoted cell growth, as demonstrated by the elevation of Ki-67, with the activation of p-ERK1/2 and cyclin D1 also evident. In addition, FN suppressed p53-mediated apoptosis and upregulated P-glycoprotein expression, making GSCs more chemoresistant to alkylating agents such as carmustine. In contrast, this effect was reversed by an integrin inhibitor, cilengitide. Activation of the focal adhesion kinase/paxillin/AKT signaling pathway was involved in the modulation of GSCs by FN. Focusing on the interactions between tumor cells and the ECM may be an encouraging aspect of research on novel chemotherapeutic therapies in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Yu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,Liaoning Clinical Medical Research Center in Nervous System Disease, Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Neuro-oncology in Liaoning Province, Shenyang, China
| | - Yixue Xue
- Department of Neurobiology, College of Basic Medicine, China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health of China, China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education of China, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,Liaoning Clinical Medical Research Center in Nervous System Disease, Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Neuro-oncology in Liaoning Province, Shenyang, China
| | - Zhuo Xi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,Liaoning Clinical Medical Research Center in Nervous System Disease, Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Neuro-oncology in Liaoning Province, Shenyang, China
| | - Zhen Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,Liaoning Clinical Medical Research Center in Nervous System Disease, Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Neuro-oncology in Liaoning Province, Shenyang, China
| | - Yunhui Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.,Liaoning Clinical Medical Research Center in Nervous System Disease, Shenyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Neuro-oncology in Liaoning Province, Shenyang, China
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