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Levine AJ. Improving T cell killing and understanding senescence: Possible roles for TP53 in cancer immunotherapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2402533121. [PMID: 38466858 PMCID: PMC10962976 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2402533121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Arnold J. Levine
- Simons Center for Systems Biology, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ08540
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2
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Roselle C, Horikawa I, Chen L, Kelly AR, Gonzales D, Da T, Wellhausen N, Rommel PC, Baker D, Suhoski M, Scholler J, O'Connor RS, Young RM, Harris CC, June CH. Enhancing chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy by modulating the p53 signaling network with Δ133p53α. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2317735121. [PMID: 38408246 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2317735121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell dysfunction is a major barrier to achieving lasting remission in hematologic cancers, especially in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). We have shown previously that Δ133p53α, an endogenous isoform of the human TP53 gene, decreases in expression with age in human T cells, and that reconstitution of Δ133p53α in poorly functional T cells can rescue proliferation [A. M. Mondal et al., J. Clin. Invest. 123, 5247-5257 (2013)]. Although Δ133p53α lacks a transactivation domain, it can form heterooligomers with full-length p53 and modulate the p53-mediated stress response [I. Horikawa et al., Cell Death Differ. 24, 1017-1028 (2017)]. Here, we show that constitutive expression of Δ133p53α potentiates the anti-tumor activity of CD19-directed CAR T cells and limits dysfunction under conditions of high tumor burden and metabolic stress. We demonstrate that Δ133p53α-expressing CAR T cells exhibit a robust metabolic phenotype, maintaining the ability to execute effector functions and continue proliferating under nutrient-limiting conditions, in part due to upregulation of critical biosynthetic processes and improved mitochondrial function. Importantly, we show that our strategy to constitutively express Δ133p53α improves the anti-tumor efficacy of CAR T cells generated from CLL patients that previously failed CAR T cell therapy. More broadly, our results point to the potential role of the p53-mediated stress response in limiting the prolonged antitumor functions required for complete tumor clearance in patients with high disease burden, suggesting that modulation of the p53 signaling network with Δ133p53α may represent a translationally viable strategy for improving CAR T cell therapy.
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MESH Headings
- Humans
- Immunotherapy, Adoptive/methods
- Leukemia, Lymphocytic, Chronic, B-Cell/genetics
- Leukemia, Lymphocytic, Chronic, B-Cell/therapy
- Receptors, Chimeric Antigen/genetics
- Receptors, Chimeric Antigen/metabolism
- Tumor Suppressor Protein p53/genetics
- Tumor Suppressor Protein p53/metabolism
- Antigens, CD19
- Cell- and Tissue-Based Therapy
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Roselle
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
- Pharmacology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Izumi Horikawa
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Linhui Chen
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Andre R Kelly
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Donna Gonzales
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Tong Da
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Nils Wellhausen
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
- Pharmacology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Philipp C Rommel
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Daniel Baker
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
- Pharmacology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
- Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Megan Suhoski
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - John Scholler
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Roddy S O'Connor
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Regina M Young
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Curtis C Harris
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Carl H June
- Center for Cellular Immunotherapies, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
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3
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Ungerleider K, Beck JA, Lissa D, Joruiz S, Horikawa I, Harris CC. Δ133p53α Protects Human Astrocytes from Amyloid-beta Induced Senescence and Neurotoxicity. Neuroscience 2022; 498:190-202. [PMID: 35716965 PMCID: PMC9420812 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Cellular senescence is an important contributor to aging and age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Senescent cells are characterized by a durable cell proliferation arrest and the acquisition of a proinflammatory senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), which participates in the progression of neurodegenerative disorders. Clearance of senescent glial cells in an AD mouse model prevented cognitive decline suggesting pharmacological agents targeting cellular senescence might provide novel therapeutic approaches for AD. Δ133p53α, a natural protein isoform of p53, was previously shown to be a negative regulator of cellular senescence in primary human astrocytes, with clinical implications from its diminished expression in brain tissues from AD patients. Here we show that treatment of proliferating human astrocytes in culture with amyloid-beta oligomers (Aβ), an endogenous pathogenic agent of AD, results in reduced expression of Δ133p53α, as well as induces the cells to become senescent and express proinflammatory SASP cytokines such as IL-6, IL-1β and TNFα. Our data suggest that Aβ-induced astrocyte cellular senescence is associated with accelerated DNA damage, and upregulation of full-length p53 and its senescence-inducing target gene p21WAF1. We also show that exogenously enhanced expression of Δ133p53α rescues human astrocytes from Aβ-induced cellular senescence and SASP through both protection from DNA damage and dominant-negative inhibition of full-length p53, leading to inhibition of Aβ-induced, astrocyte-mediated neurotoxicity. The results presented here demonstrate that Δ133p53α manipulation could modulate cellular senescence in the context of AD, possibly opening new therapeutic avenues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyra Ungerleider
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jessica A Beck
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Layfette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Delphine Lissa
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Sebastien Joruiz
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Izumi Horikawa
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Curtis C Harris
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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4
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Beck J, Turnquist C, Horikawa I, Harris C. Targeting cellular senescence in cancer and aging: roles of p53 and its isoforms. Carcinogenesis 2021; 41:1017-1029. [PMID: 32619002 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgaa071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular senescence and the associated secretory phenotype (SASP) promote disease in the aged population. Targeting senescent cells by means of removal, modulation of SASP or through cellular reprogramming represents a novel therapeutic avenue for treating cancer- and age-related diseases such as neurodegeneration, pulmonary fibrosis and renal disease. Cellular senescence is partly regulated by the TP53 gene, a critical tumor suppressor gene which encodes 12 or more p53 protein isoforms. This review marks a significant milestone of 40 years of Carcinogenesis publication history and p53 research and 15 years of p53 isoform research. The p53 isoforms are produced through initiation at alternative transcriptional and translational start sites and alternative mRNA splicing. These truncated p53 isoform proteins are endogenously expressed in normal human cells and maintain important functional roles, including modulation of full-length p53-mediated cellular senescence, apoptosis and DNA repair. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms and functions of cellular senescence and SASP in health and disease, the regulation of cellular senescence by p53 isoforms, and the therapeutic potential of targeting cellular senescence to treat cancer- and age-associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Beck
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.,Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Casmir Turnquist
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.,University of Oxford Medical School, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK
| | - Izumi Horikawa
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Curtis Harris
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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5
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Horikawa I. Balancing and Differentiating p53 Activities toward Longevity and No Cancer? Cancer Res 2021; 80:5164-5165. [PMID: 33268555 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-20-3080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Aging and death of cells (cellular senescence and apoptosis, respectively), triggered by or associated with cellular stress and DNA damage, impair organ function and homeostasis, leading to organismal aging and death. On the other hand, defects in physiologic regulations of cellular aging and death (escape from cellular senescence and failed apoptosis of severely damaged cells) contribute to uncontrolled cell division and genetic instability in cancer. In an oversimplified scenario, p53, an inducer of cellular senescence and apoptosis, may thus unfavorably contribute to aging and favorably suppress tumorigenesis. However, physiologic mechanisms should exist and therapeutic approaches may be developed to balance between aging and tumor suppression, for example, by differentially regulating cellular senescence, apoptosis, and other p53-mediated biological processes, such as DNA repair, autophagy, and energy metabolism. Possible mechanisms for such differential regulation of different subsets of p53 target genes may involve posttranslational modifications (e.g., phosphorylation and acetylation) and DNA binding cooperativity of p53. In this issue of Cancer Research, Timofeev and colleagues show that a previously uncharacterized phosphorylation in the p53 core DNA-binding domain regulates the DNA binding cooperativity and transcriptional activity of p53. Their mice deficient for this p53 phosphorylation were resistant to spontaneous and induced tumorigenesis, while they had shortened lifespan, but did not show progeria-like phenotypes. Prompted by this study, research on p53, aging, and cancer will explore balancing and differentiating different p53 activities toward a challenging goal of achieving longevity with no cancer.See related article by Timofeev et al., p. 5231.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izumi Horikawa
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland.
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6
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From cancer to rejuvenation: incomplete regeneration as the missing link (part II: rejuvenation circle). Future Sci OA 2020; 6:FSO610. [PMID: 32983567 PMCID: PMC7491027 DOI: 10.2144/fsoa-2020-0085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In the first part of our study, we substantiated that the embryonic reontogenesis and malignant growth (disintegrating growth) pathways are the same, but occur at different stages of ontogenesis, this mechanism is carried out in opposite directions. Cancer has been shown to be epigenetic-blocked redifferentiation and unfinished somatic embryogenesis. We formulated that only this approach of aging elimination has real prospects for a future that is fraught with cancer, as we will be able to convert this risk into a rejuvenation process through the continuous cycling of cell dedifferentiation-differentiation processes (permanent remorphogenesis). Here, we continue to develop the idea of looped ontogenesis and formulate the concept of the rejuvenation circle.
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7
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Li X, Lei Y, Yu Y, Zhang Y, Zhang W, Shen H, Tao C, Wu F, Huang S, Shao H. Discovery and characterization of a novel splice variant of the p53 tumor suppressor gene in a human T cell leukemia cellline. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PATHOLOGY 2020; 13:1121-1135. [PMID: 32509087 PMCID: PMC7270667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Alternative splicing produces multiple mRNA variants of TP53 which have diverse biologic functions. In this study, we identified a novel splice variant of TP53 lacking a 200 nt portion of exon 4 (p53ΔE4p) from a human leukemia T cell line. No protein product of p53ΔE4p was identifiable by western blot; however, forced expression of the variant in HEK-293T cells expressing wild-type p53 could inhibit cell proliferation and promote cell death. Interestingly, this novel variant also significantly enhances the expression of reporter genes. Moreover, transcriptome analysis showed that genes related to DNA binding and regulation of transcription by RNA polymerase II function were significantly upregulated following p53ΔE4p transfection, suggesting a role for this variant in the regulation of gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomei Li
- School of Life Science and Biopharmaceutics, Guangdong Pharmaceutical UniversityGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Biotechnology Drug CandidateGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Yingshou Lei
- School of Life Science and Biopharmaceutics, Guangdong Pharmaceutical UniversityGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Biotechnology Drug CandidateGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Yang Yu
- School of Life Science and Biopharmaceutics, Guangdong Pharmaceutical UniversityGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Biotechnology Drug CandidateGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Yaqian Zhang
- School of Life Science and Biopharmaceutics, Guangdong Pharmaceutical UniversityGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Biotechnology Drug CandidateGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Wenfeng Zhang
- School of Life Science and Biopharmaceutics, Guangdong Pharmaceutical UniversityGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Biotechnology Drug CandidateGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Han Shen
- School of Life Science and Biopharmaceutics, Guangdong Pharmaceutical UniversityGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Biotechnology Drug CandidateGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Changli Tao
- School of Life Science and Biopharmaceutics, Guangdong Pharmaceutical UniversityGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Biotechnology Drug CandidateGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Fenglin Wu
- School of Life Science and Biopharmaceutics, Guangdong Pharmaceutical UniversityGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Biotechnology Drug CandidateGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Shulin Huang
- School of Life Science and Biopharmaceutics, Guangdong Pharmaceutical UniversityGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Biotechnology Drug CandidateGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
- Central Laboratory, Affiliated Dongguan People’s Hospital, Southern Medical UniversityDongguan, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Hongwei Shao
- School of Life Science and Biopharmaceutics, Guangdong Pharmaceutical UniversityGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Biotechnology Drug CandidateGuangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
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8
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Liu K, Lin J. Δ133p53 decreases the chemosensitivity of carcinoma cell line H1299. Cell Biol Int 2019; 43:960-964. [PMID: 31115944 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.11181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 05/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The research evaluated the effect of Δ133p53 on the chemosensitivity of lung adenocarcinoma cell line H1299. By this study, the drug-resistant molecular marker and a new target for cancer therapy could be provided. Δ133p53 or negative control plasmid were transferred into H1299 cells by lentivirus vector. The expression of Δ133p53 in transfected cells was examined using immunofluorescence. The 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) method and colony formation test were applied to detect drug sensitivity after cisplatin or 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) treatment. After cisplatin (CDDP)/FU treatment, MTT assay demonstrated that the inhibition rate of H1299/Δ133p53 cell was reduced compared with that of the H1299 and H1299/NEG cells at the same concentration of drug. The 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC 50 ) of CDDP and 5-FU rose by 36.1 and 30.2%, respectively (P < 0.05). The colony formation assay suggested that the cell proliferation ability of H1299/Δ133p53 cell was prominently increased when compared with that of control group H1299 and H1299 /NEG cells (P < 0.05). The present study demonstrated that the transfection of the Δ133p53 gene in H1299 cells led to the reduction of chemosensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaishan Liu
- Pathological Section, College of Basic Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jun Lin
- Pathological Section, College of Basic Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, Guangdong Province, China
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Mondal AM, Zhou H, Horikawa I, Suprynowicz FA, Li G, Dakic A, Rosenthal B, Ye L, Harris CC, Schlegel R, Liu X. Δ133p53α, a natural p53 isoform, contributes to conditional reprogramming and long-term proliferation of primary epithelial cells. Cell Death Dis 2018; 9:750. [PMID: 29970881 PMCID: PMC6030220 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-018-0767-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Revised: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
We previously developed the technique of conditional reprogramming (CR), which allows primary epithelial cells from fresh or cryopreserved specimens to be propagated long-term in vitro, while maintaining their genetic stability and differentiation potential. This method requires a combination of irradiated fibroblast feeder cells and a Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) inhibitor. In the present study, we demonstrate increased levels of full-length p53 and its natural isoform, Δ133p53α, in conditionally reprogrammed epithelial cells from primary prostate, foreskin, ectocervical, and mammary tissues. Increased Δ133p53α expression is critical for CR since cell proliferation is rapidly inhibited following siRNA knockdown of endogenous Δ133p53α. Importantly, overexpression of Δ133p53α consistently delays the onset of cellular senescence of primary cells when cultured under non-CR conditions in normal keratinocyte growth medium (KGM). More significantly, the combination of Δ133p53α overexpression and ROCK inhibitor, without feeder cells, enables primary epithelial cells to be propagated long-term in vitro. We also show that Δ133p53α overexpression induces hTERT expression and telomerase activity and that siRNA knockdown of hTERT causes rapid inhibition of cell proliferation, indicating a critical role of hTERT for mediating the effects of Δ133p53α. Altogether, these data demonstrate a functional and regulatory link between p53 pathways and hTERT expression during the conditional reprogramming of primary epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdul M Mondal
- Center for Cell Reprograming, Department of Pathology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Georgrtown, WA, 20057, USA
| | - Hua Zhou
- Center for Cell Reprograming, Department of Pathology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Georgrtown, WA, 20057, USA.,Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Izumi Horikawa
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Frank A Suprynowicz
- Center for Cell Reprograming, Department of Pathology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Georgrtown, WA, 20057, USA
| | - Guangzhao Li
- Center for Cell Reprograming, Department of Pathology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Georgrtown, WA, 20057, USA
| | - Aleksandra Dakic
- Center for Cell Reprograming, Department of Pathology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Georgrtown, WA, 20057, USA
| | - Bernard Rosenthal
- Center for Cell Reprograming, Department of Pathology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Georgrtown, WA, 20057, USA
| | - Lin Ye
- Center for Cell Reprograming, Department of Pathology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Georgrtown, WA, 20057, USA.,Shenzhen Eye Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Curtis C Harris
- Laboratory of Human Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Richard Schlegel
- Center for Cell Reprograming, Department of Pathology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Georgrtown, WA, 20057, USA.
| | - Xuefeng Liu
- Center for Cell Reprograming, Department of Pathology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Georgrtown, WA, 20057, USA. .,Second Xianya Hospital (Adjunct Position), Zhongnan University, Changsha, Huna, China. .,Affiliated Cancer Hospital & Institute (Adjunct Position), Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
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