A DP-like transcription factor protein interacts with E2fl1 to regulate meiosis in Tetrahymena thermophila

Noncanonical usage of stop codons in ciliates expands proteins with structurally flexible Q-rich motifs

Serine(S)/threonine(T)-glutamine(Q) cluster domains (SCDs), polyglutamine (polyQ) tracts and polyglutamine/asparagine (polyQ/N) tracts are Q-rich motifs found in many proteins. SCDs often are intrinsically disordered regions that mediate protein phosphorylation and protein-protein interactions. PolyQ and polyQ/N tracts are structurally flexible sequences that trigger protein aggregation. We report that due to their high percentages of STQ or STQN amino acid content, four SCDs and three prion-causing Q/N-rich motifs of yeast proteins possess autonomous protein expression-enhancing activities. Since these Q-rich motifs can endow proteins with structural and functional plasticity, we suggest that they represent useful toolkits for evolutionary novelty. Comparative Gene Ontology (GO) analyses of the near-complete proteomes of 26 representative model eukaryotes reveal that Q-rich motifs prevail in proteins involved in specialized biological processes, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae RNA-mediated transposition and pseudohyphal growth, Candida albicans filamentous growth, ciliate peptidyl-glutamic acid modification and microtubule-based movement, Tetrahymena thermophila xylan catabolism and meiosis, Dictyostelium discoideum development and sexual cycles, Plasmodium falciparum infection, and the nervous systems of Drosophila melanogaster, Mus musculus and Homo sapiens. We also show that Q-rich-motif proteins are expanded massively in 10 ciliates with reassigned TAAQ and TAGQ codons. Notably, the usage frequency of CAGQ is much lower in ciliates with reassigned TAAQ and TAGQ codons than in organisms with expanded and unstable Q runs (e.g. D. melanogaster and H. sapiens), indicating that the use of noncanonical stop codons in ciliates may have coevolved with codon usage biases to avoid triplet repeat disorders mediated by CAG/GTC replication slippage.

A practical reference for studying meiosis in the model ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila

Meiosis is a critical cell division program that produces haploid gametes for sexual reproduction. Abnormalities in meiosis are often causes of infertility and birth defects (e.g., Down syndrome). Most organisms use a highly specialized zipper-like protein complex, the synaptonemal complex (SC), to guide and stabilize pairing of homologous chromosomes in meiosis. Although the SC is critical for meiosis in many eukaryotes, there are organisms that perform meiosis without a functional SC. However, such SC-less meiosis is poorly characterized. To understand the features of SC-less meiosis and its adaptive significance, the ciliated protozoan Tetrahymena was selected as a model. Meiosis research in Tetrahymena has revealed intriguing aspects of the regulatory programs utilized in its SC-less meiosis, yet additional efforts are needed for obtaining an in-depth comprehension of mechanisms that are associated with the absence of SC. Here, aiming at promoting a wider application of Tetrahymena for meiosis research, we introduce basic concepts and core techniques for studying meiosis in Tetrahymena and then suggest future directions for expanding the current Tetrahymena meiosis research toolbox. These methodologies could be adopted for dissecting meiosis in poorly characterized ciliates that might reveal novel features. Such data will hopefully provide insights into the function of the SC and the evolution of meiosis from a unique perspective.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42995-022-00149-8.

Modular, cascade-like transcriptional program of regeneration in Stentor

The giant ciliate Stentor coeruleus is a classical model system for studying regeneration and morphogenesis in a single cell. The anterior of the cell is marked by an array of cilia, known as the oral apparatus, which can be induced to shed and regenerate in a series of reproducible morphological steps, previously shown to require transcription. If a cell is cut in half, each half regenerates an intact cell. We used RNA sequencing (RNAseq) to assay the dynamic changes in Stentor’s transcriptome during regeneration, after both oral apparatus shedding and bisection, allowing us to identify distinct temporal waves of gene expression including kinases, RNA -binding proteins, centriole biogenesis factors, and orthologs of human ciliopathy genes. By comparing transcriptional profiles of different regeneration events, we identified distinct modules of gene expression corresponding to oral apparatus regeneration, posterior holdfast regeneration, and recovery after wounding. By measuring gene expression after blocking translation, we show that the sequential waves of gene expression involve a cascade mechanism in which later waves of expression are triggered by translation products of early-expressed genes. Among the early-expressed genes, we identified an E2F transcription factor and the RNA-binding protein Pumilio as potential regulators of regeneration based on the expression pattern of their predicted target genes. RNAi-mediated knockdown experiments indicate that Pumilio is required for regenerating oral structures of the correct size. E2F is involved in the completion of regeneration but is dispensable for earlier steps. This work allows us to classify regeneration genes into groups based on their potential role for regeneration in distinct cell regeneration paradigms, and provides insight into how a single cell can coordinate complex morphogenetic pathways to regenerate missing structures.

Zfp1, a Cys2His2 zinc finger protein is required for meiosis initiation in Tetrahymena thermophila

Meiosis is an important and highly conserved process that occurs during eukaryotic sexual reproduction. Diverse mechanisms are responsible for meiosis initiation among eukaryotes, and transcription factors have been established to have an important role in many species. However, the specific function of transcription factors in initiating meiosis in ciliates is unknown. Here we show that a putative Cys2His2 zinc finger-containing transcription factor encoded by the ZFP1 gene is specifically expressed during sexual reproduction in Tetrahymena thermophila. Meiosis is not initiated in the cells lacking ZFP1. Transcriptome sequencing analyses reveal that Zfp1 is required for the expression of many meiosis-specific genes. Our results indicate that Zfp1 could be a transcriptional activator required for meiosis initiation in T. thermophila.

Arrested crossover precursor structures form stable homologous bonds in a Tetrahymena meiotic mutant

Meiotic DNA double-strand breaks produce reciprocally exchanged DNA strands, which mature into chiasmata that hold homologous chromosomes together as bivalents. These bivalents are subsequently separated in the first meiotic division. In a mutant lacking the newly identified Tetrahymena gene APRO1 (Anaphase promoting 1), meiosis is arrested by the end of prophase. Mature chiasmata are not formed but bivalents are connected via a molecular precursor structure. In-depth analysis of this arrested intermediate structure may help to elucidate the noncanonical molecular recombination pathway in Tetrahymena.

Tetrahymena meiosis: Simple yet ingenious

The presence of meiosis, which is a conserved component of sexual reproduction, across organisms from all eukaryotic kingdoms, strongly argues that sex is a primordial feature of eukaryotes. However, extant meiotic structures and processes can vary considerably between organisms. The ciliated protist Tetrahymena thermophila, which diverged from animals, plants, and fungi early in evolution, provides one example of a rather unconventional meiosis. Tetrahymena has a simpler meiosis compared with most other organisms: It lacks both a synaptonemal complex (SC) and specialized meiotic machinery for chromosome cohesion and has a reduced capacity to regulate meiotic recombination. Despite this, it also features several unique mechanisms, including elongation of the nucleus to twice the cell length to promote homologous pairing and prevent recombination between sister chromatids. Comparison of the meiotic programs of Tetrahymena and higher multicellular organisms may reveal how extant meiosis evolved from proto-meiosis.

Functional characterization of RebL1 highlights the evolutionary conservation of oncogenic activities of the RBBP4/7 orthologue in Tetrahymena thermophila

Retinoblastoma-binding proteins 4 and 7 (RBBP4 and RBBP7) are two highly homologous human histone chaperones. They function in epigenetic regulation as subunits of multiple chromatin-related complexes and have been implicated in numerous cancers. Due to their overlapping functions, our understanding of RBBP4 and 7, particularly outside of Opisthokonts, has remained limited. Here, we report that in the ciliate protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila a single orthologue of human RBBP4 and 7 proteins, RebL1, physically interacts with histone H4 and functions in multiple epigenetic regulatory pathways. Functional proteomics identified conserved functional links for Tetrahymena RebL1 protein as well as human RBBP4 and 7. We found that putative subunits of multiple chromatin-related complexes including CAF1, Hat1, Rpd3, and MuvB, co-purified with RebL1 during Tetrahymena growth and conjugation. Iterative proteomics analyses revealed that the cell cycle regulatory MuvB-complex in Tetrahymena is composed of at least five subunits including evolutionarily conserved Lin54, Lin9 and RebL1 proteins. Genome-wide analyses indicated that RebL1 and Lin54 (Anqa1) bind within genic and intergenic regions. Moreover, Anqa1 targets primarily promoter regions suggesting a role for Tetrahymena MuvB in transcription regulation. RebL1 depletion inhibited cellular growth and reduced the expression levels of Anqa1 and Lin9. Consistent with observations in glioblastoma tumors, RebL1 depletion suppressed DNA repair protein Rad51 in Tetrahymena, thus underscoring the evolutionarily conserved functions of RBBP4/7 proteins. Our results suggest the essentiality of RebL1 functions in multiple epigenetic regulatory complexes in which it impacts transcription regulation and cellular viability.

Identification of long regulatory elements in the genome of Plasmodium falciparum and other eukaryotes

Long regulatory elements (LREs), such as CpG islands, polydA:dT tracts or AU-rich elements, are thought to play key roles in gene regulation but, as opposed to conventional binding sites of transcription factors, few methods have been proposed to formally and automatically characterize them. We present here a computational approach named DExTER (Domain Exploration To Explain gene Regulation) dedicated to the identification of candidate LREs (cLREs) and apply it to the analysis of the genomes of P. falciparum and other eukaryotes. Our analyses show that all tested genomes contain several cLREs that are somewhat conserved along evolution, and that gene expression can be predicted with surprising accuracy on the basis of these long regions only. Regulation by cLREs exhibits very different behaviours depending on species and conditions. In P. falciparum and other Apicomplexan organisms as well as in Dictyostelium discoideum, the process appears highly dynamic, with different cLREs involved at different phases of the life cycle. For multicellular organisms, the same cLREs are involved in all tissues, but a dynamic behavior is observed along embryonic development stages. In P. falciparum, whose genome is known to be strongly depleted of transcription factors, cLREs are predictive of expression with an accuracy above 70%, and our analyses show that they are associated with both transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation signals. Moreover, we assessed the biological relevance of one LRE discovered by DExTER in P. falciparum using an in vivo reporter assay. The source code (python) of DExTER is available at https://gite.lirmm.fr/menichelli/DExTER.

Exploring the Histone Acetylation Cycle in the Protozoan Model Tetrahymena thermophila

The eukaryotic histone acetylation cycle is composed of three classes of proteins, histone acetyltransferases (HATs) that add acetyl groups to lysine amino acids, bromodomain (BRD) containing proteins that are one of the most characterized of several protein domains that recognize acetyl-lysine (Kac) and effect downstream function, and histone deacetylases (HDACs) that catalyze the reverse reaction. Dysfunction of selected proteins of these three classes is associated with human disease such as cancer. Additionally, the HATs, BRDs, and HDACs of fungi and parasitic protozoa present potential drug targets. Despite their importance, the function and mechanisms of HATs, BRDs, and HDACs and how they relate to chromatin remodeling (CR) remain incompletely understood. Tetrahymena thermophila (Tt) provides a highly tractable single-celled free-living protozoan model for studying histone acetylation, featuring a massively acetylated somatic genome, a property that was exploited in the identification of the first nuclear/type A HAT Gcn5 in the 1990s. Since then, Tetrahymena remains an under-explored model for the molecular analysis of HATs, BRDs, and HDACs. Studies of HATs, BRDs, and HDACs in Tetrahymena have the potential to reveal the function of HATs and BRDs relevant to both fundamental eukaryotic biology and to the study of disease mechanisms in parasitic protozoa.

A Co-Expression Network in Hexaploid Wheat Reveals Mostly Balanced Expression and Lack of Significant Gene Loss of Homeologous Meiotic Genes Upon Polyploidization

Polyploidization has played an important role in plant evolution. However, upon polyploidization, the process of meiosis must adapt to ensure the proper segregation of increased numbers of chromosomes to produce balanced gametes. It has been suggested that meiotic gene (MG) duplicates return to a single copy following whole genome duplication to stabilize the polyploid genome. Therefore, upon the polyploidization of wheat, a hexaploid species with three related (homeologous) genomes, the stabilization process may have involved rapid changes in content and expression of MGs on homeologous chromosomes (homeologs). To examine this hypothesis, sets of candidate MGs were identified in wheat using co-expression network analysis and orthology informed approaches. In total, 130 RNA-Seq samples from a range of tissues including wheat meiotic anthers were used to define co-expressed modules of genes. Three modules were significantly correlated with meiotic tissue samples but not with other tissue types. These modules were enriched for GO terms related to cell cycle, DNA replication, and chromatin modification and contained orthologs of known MGs. Overall, 74.4% of genes within these meiosis-related modules had three homeologous copies which was similar to other tissue-related modules. Amongst wheat MGs identified by orthology, rather than co-expression, the majority (93.7%) were either retained in hexaploid wheat at the same number of copies (78.4%) or increased in copy number (15.3%) compared to ancestral wheat species. Furthermore, genes within meiosis-related modules showed more balanced expression levels between homeologs than genes in non-meiosis-related modules. Taken together, our results do not support extensive gene loss nor changes in homeolog expression of MGs upon wheat polyploidization. The construction of the MG co-expression network allowed identification of hub genes and provided key targets for future studies.