Formation and Evaluation of Act and Anticipate Hazard Perception Training (AAHPT) intervention for young novice drivers

The effect of dual training on the hazard response and attention allocation of novice drivers when driving with advanced driver assistance system

To ensure traffic safety when driving with an advanced driving assistance system (ADAS), drivers are still required to take over control of the vehicle in case of emergency. Drivers' takeover performance jointly relies on their capability to anticipate the potential hazards in traffic scenarios and an appropriate understanding of ADAS capabilities. However, previous research mostly focused on strengthening drivers' understanding of ADAS capabilities but ignored drivers' hazard perception capabilities when using ADAS - the latter is especially weak among novice drivers. This study proposed and evaluated three training methods for novice drivers, i.e., ADAS training only (AD training), hazard perception training only (HP training), and AD+HP training. Their effectiveness on drivers' attention allocation strategies and responses to hazardous scenarios when handling hazardous scenarios with different levels of complexity were evaluated among 32 novice drivers in a driving simulator study. Results show that the proposed AD+HP training outperformed AD training and HP training in terms of attention allocation strategies (i.e., wider distribution of attention) and responses in hazardous scenarios (i.e., quicker and more attention to cues of importance and larger minimum time gap). However, the effectiveness of all kinds of training was weakened in more complex scenarios. Findings from this study provide insights into driver training in the context of driving automation.

The efficacy of hazard perception training and education: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Hazard perception (HP) has been argued to improve with experience, with numerous training programs having been developed in an attempt to fast track the development of this critical safety skill. To date, there has been little synthesis of these methods.

OBJECTIVE

The present study sought to synthesise the literature for all road users to capture the breadth of methodologies and intervention types, and quantify their efficacy.

DATA SOURCES

A systematic review of both peer reviewed and non-peer-reviewed literature was completed. A total of 57 papers were found to have met inclusion criteria.

RESULTS

Research into hazard perception has focused primarily on drivers (with 42 studies), with a limited number of studies focusing on vulnerable road users, including motorcyclists (3 studies), cyclists (7 studies) and pedestrians (5 studies). Training was found to have a large significant effect on improving hazard perception skills for drivers (g = 0.78) and cyclists (g = 0.97), a moderate effect for pedestrians (g = 0.64) and small effect for motorcyclists (g = 0.42). There was considerable heterogeneity in the findings, with the efficacy of training varying as a function of the hazard perception skill being measured, the type of training enacted (active, passive or combined) and the number of sessions of training (single or multiple). Active training and single sessions were found to yield more consistent significant improvements in hazard perception.

CONCLUSIONS

This study found that HP training improved HP skill across all road user groups with generally moderate to large effects identified. HP training should employ a training method that actively engages the participants in the training task. Preliminary results suggest that a single session of training may be sufficient to improve HP skill however more research is needed into the delivery of these single sessions and long-term retention. Further research is also required to determine whether improvements in early-stage skills translate to improvements in responses on the road, and the long-term retention of the skills developed through training.

The human-factors' challenges of (tele)drivers of Autonomous Vehicles

Autonomous capabilities, including Autonomous Vehicle (AV) technology, aim to reduce human effort, extend capabilities, and enhance safety. While AVs offer societal benefits, human intervention remains necessary, especially in complex situations. As communication technology advances, human intervention is possible from remote sites. In such remote locations, highly skilled tele-drivers (TEDs) are ready to face situations too complicated for the AV. However, current work still needs a comprehensive mapping of the challenges that TEDs would face. Some of these challenges are shared with IVDs but may have stronger or weaker effects on the remote driver's ability to maintain safety. Other challenges, such as limited situational awareness of the road scene, the indirect experience of vehicle motion, and communication latency, are unique to TEDs. We assess the challenges, comparing their impact on TEDs versus IVDs, and explore technological countermeasures aimed at mitigating specific challenges encountered by TEDs. Lastly, we identified knowledge gaps and areas lacking understanding in the literature, highlighting avenues for future research and practical implications for practitioners.

How (where) Does Music Background Hamper Driver Behaviour?

OBJECTIVE

The current study examined the effects of music on Hazard Perception - a skill that serves as a proxy for safe driving.

BACKGROUND

There is contradictory evidence whether or not music engagement leads to decremented driver performance and compromises traffic safety.

METHOD

In the study, 36 participants performed a standard Video-Based Hazard Perception Test under three aural conditions: Road and Traffic Sounds (RS); RS + Driver-Preferred Music; RS + Alternative Music.

RESULTS

The results show no effect of aural backgrounds (including music) on the situation awareness portion of the driving task.

CONCLUSION

Music background might affect later stages of the driving task such as response selection and/or response execution (mitigation).

APPLICATION

The investigation of human factors related to vehicular control should include how (where) music might trigger failures in perception and/or behaviour.

Developing a taxonomy of hazards and hazard mitigation strategies for Motorised mobility scooter users

The increased use of motorised mobility scooters (MMSs) presents a road safety challenge as using a MMS has risks for the user, pedestrians, and other road users. In relation to enhancing MMS driving safety, much of the training and available literature focuses on training vehicular control. Equally important is the need to investigate higher-order cognitive skills involved in driving MMSs, particularly hazard perception. Through a large questionnaire study with MMS users, we develop a taxonomy of the types of hazard MMS users encounter when crossing roads and strategies that are used to negotiate these hazards. Whilst MMS experience modulated hazard perception and strategy use, a core set of hazards and strategies were identified that have policy and practice implications for training interventions and the built environment. Exploration of the advantages and disadvantages of MMS use indicated its impact on various wellbeing outcomes as well as some potential barriers to use.

Effect of Five Driver's Behavior Characteristics on Car-Following Safety

Driver's behavior characteristics (DBCs) influence car-following safety. Therefore, this paper aimed to analyze the effect of different DBCs on the car-following safety based on the desired safety margin (DSM) car-following model, which includes five DBC parameters. Based on the Monte Carlo simulation method, the effect of DBCs on car-following safety is investigated under a given rear-end collision (RECs) condition. We find that larger subjective risk perception levels can reduce RECs, a smaller acceleration sensitivity (or a larger deceleration sensitivity) can improve car-following safety, and a faster reaction ability of the driver can avoid RECs in the car-following process. It implies that DBCs would cause a traffic wave in the car-following process. Therefore, a reasonable value of DBCs can enhance traffic flow stability, and a traffic control strategy can improve car-following safety by using the adjustment of DBCs.

Quantifying effects of reverse linear perspective as a visual cue on vehicle and platoon crash risk variations in car-following using path analysis

Road markings are prevalent in practice as perceptual countermeasures to crashes, and a great deal of them have been used for speed reduction. However, there is rare seen any equivalent measures especially for distance control. More importantly, the visual perceptual mechanism of road markings on driving behaviors and crash risk is still blur. Given this, in the present study, we comprehensively quantified the effects of reverse linear perspective (RLP) from its origin as a visual cue, produced by a kind of transverse line markings on road, and explored the effects on car-following behaviors and crash risk variations by path analyses imbedded in a structural equations model, which was approximated with naturalistic driving and traffic flow data. In the model, multiple sources of observed factors in visual perception, driver behaviors, and traffic flow characteristics, and exogenous unobserved factors of distance risk perception, speed risk perception, and platoon risk status were comprehensively structured to explain the vehicle crash risk variation and the platoon crash risk variation. The results indicate that (1) distance risk perception, speed risk perception, and platoon risk status were well explanatory and predictive to vehicle crash risk variation and platoon crash risk variation; (2) the effects of reverse linear perspective as a visual cue on driving behaviors and crash risk variations in car-following were adequately quantified by its geometrical characteristics concerning distance perception; (3) the visual cue of reverse linear perspective in addition with initial distance, stopping sight distance, and the type of leading vehicles explained 33 % of the variance in distance risk perception; the temporal frequency, initial speed, and the type of following vehicles explained 23 % of the variance in speed risk perception; distance risk perception, speed risk perception, and platoon risk status combinedly explained 25 % and 22 % of the total variance in vehicle crash risk variation and platoon crash risk variation, respectively; (4) vehicle crash risk variation and platoon crash risk variation were equivalently specified by those observed explanatory factors. The findings of this study suggest the usefulness and importance of understanding the contribution of psychological factors on crash risk, and emphasize that the road markings can be an effective and readily practical countermeasure in easing traffic safety issues.

A thousand years of crash experience in three hours: An online hazard perception training course for drivers

A key goal of driver training is to teach drivers to avoid crashes. However, in traditional driver training, drivers are unlikely to see even a single example of the class of event that we want them to learn to avoid. We developed a six-session automated online hazard perception training course for drivers, which incorporates a range of evidence-based strategies and employs extensive video footage of real crashes. We evaluated this course in a randomized control trial by examining its effects on previously-validated computer-based measures of hazard perception, hazard prediction, speed choice, following distance, and gap acceptance propensity, as well as self-rated measures of driver skill, safety, and real world transfer. We found that the course resulted in significant improvements in hazard perception response time and hazard prediction scores, and significantly longer vehicle following distances. Additionally, all participants in the trained group reported that their real world driving behaviour had improved. No significant training effects were found for the other measures. The results suggest that the course can improve key behaviours associated with crash risk.

Understanding complex traffic road scenes: The case of child-pedestrians' hazard perception

INTRODUCTION

Understanding the shortcomings of child-pedestrians in evaluating traffic situations may contribute to producing intervention techniques that may increase their awareness to potential hazards as well as inform and inspire designers of autonomous vehicle and infrastructure systems to deal with the complications of crossing pedestrians.

METHOD

The present work examined pedestrians' hazard-perception (HP) skills in complex traffic scenes. Two experiments explored how pedestrians' HP abilities vary with age and experience. In the first, adults and youngsters (7-13-year-olds) were presented with pairs of photographs displaying traffic situations and instructed to compare between the hazard levels of the two. Findings revealed a marked trend where experienced-adults tended to rate photographs depicting field of view partially obscured by parked vehicles as more hazardous. Moreover, adults tended to rate photographs depicting vehicles closer to the crossing site as more hazardous. Lastly, adults tended to rate photographs depicting complex configurations like traffic circles, as more hazardous than T-junctions.

RESULTS

Findings suggested that youngsters may be highly influenced by cueing. Next, pedestrians' HP was tested using a crossing decision task. Participants observed traffic scenes presented in a dynamic simulated environment of an urban road from a pedestrian's perspective and pressed a response button whenever they assumed it was safe to cross. Compared to experienced-adults and 7-8-year-olds, 9-13-year-olds presented a less decisive performance. Compared to previous findings regarding simpler road crossing configurations, most participants, regardless of age, related more to the approaching vehicles and presence of a pedestrian crossing while refraining from addressing the road configuration. Implications for road-safety are discussed.

A novel driver hazard perception sensitivity model based on drivers' characteristics: A simulator study

Objective: Considering the high annual number of fatal driving accidents in Iran, any approach for reducing the number or severity of driving accidents is a positive step toward decreasing accident-related losses. Accidents can often be avoided by a timely reaction of the driver. One of the steps before reacting to a hazard is perception. Some driver characteristics may affect road hazard perception. In this research, it was assumed that various driver characteristics, including demographic characteristics and cognitive characteristics, have an impact on driver perception. Methods: The driving simulator used in this research provides various scenarios; for example, passing a pedestrian or animal across the road or placing fixed objects in a 2-lane separated rural road for 2 groups of experienced and inexperienced drivers under day and night lighting conditions. The go/no-go test was carried out in order to assess drivers' attention to driving tasks and inhibitory control. A structural equation model (SEM) was used to estimate the relation between driver characteristics and sensitivity to road hazard perception. A new hazard perception index was proposed based on the time intervals in the hazard vulnerability. Results: The results show that the most effective variables in the analysis of sensitivity to hazard perception are driving experience (in kilometers) during the last 3 years and road lighting conditions. Moreover, hazard perception sensitivity was improved by better inhibitory control, selective attention, and decision making, more carefulness, the average amount of daily sleep, and marital status. Conclusion: The results of this research may be useful in educating and advertising programs. It also could enhance sensitivity to perception of hazards such as pedestrians, animals, and fixed obstacles among young and novice drivers.

Impact of heterogeneity of car-following behavior on rear-end crash risk

An increasing number of vehicles travel on freeways result not only in traffic congestions but also accidents. Rear-end crashes in freeways can be collectively attributed to drivers, vehicles, and road infrastructure, but driving behavior plays a key role in influencing car-following safety. This study aims to investigate the impact of heterogeneity of driving behavior on rear-end crash risk. Driving behavior depends on perceived risk levels, acceleration and deceleration habits, and driver reaction characteristics. Thus, the influencing factors of rear-end crash risk were initially analyzed by using the desired safety margin (DSM) model. Subsequently, five driving behavior parameters, including upper and lower limits of DSM, sensitivity coefficients of acceleration and deceleration, and response time, were calibrated by using the vehicle trajectories from the Next Generation Simulation I-80 datasets. Simulation experiments were designed to evaluate the impact of heterogeneity of car-following behavior on rear-end crash risk. Results showed that decreasing the lower (or upper) limit of the DSM, increasing the response time, increasing the sensitivity coefficient for acceleration, or decreasing the sensitivity coefficient for deceleration can increase rear-end crash risk. In addition, if stable and unstable driving styles coexist, then their proportions have important influences on rear-end crash risk. These results imply that two critical factors affect shock waves, namely, driving behavior characteristics and proportion of different driving styles. Thus, a potential strategy for the adjustment of the proportions of unstable driving styles can attenuate shock waves and reduce rear-end crash risk to a certain extent. Moreover, a wide extent of driving behavior heterogeneity can attenuate shock waves and subsequently reduce rear-end crash risk. Overall, driving behavior heterogeneity has an important impact on rear-end crash risk. Exploring the effect of each driving behavior parameter on rear-end crash probability is useful for urban road traffic control, and it can provide improved understanding of abnormal driving behavior characteristics to minimize rear-end crash risks.

What can a hazard function teach us about drivers' perception of hazards?

OBJECTIVE

Hazard perception (HP) is typically defined as the ability to read the road and anticipate hazardous situations. Several studies have shown that HP is a driving skill that correlates with traffic crashes. Measuring HP differences between various groups of drivers typically involves a paradigm in which participants observe short videos of real-world traffic scenes taken from a driver's or a pedestrian's perspective and press a response button each time they identify a hazard. Young, inexperienced drivers are considered to have poor HP skills compared to experienced drivers, as evident by their slower response times (RTs) to road hazards. Nevertheless, though several studies report RT differences between young, inexperienced and experienced drivers, other studies did not find such differences. We have already suggested that these contradictory findings may be attributed to how cases of no response-that is, a situation where a participant did not respond to a hazard-are being treated. Specifically, we showed that though survival analysis handles cases of no response appropriately, common practices fail to do so. These methods often replace a case of no response with the mean RT of those who responded or any other central tendency parameters. The present work aims to show that treating cases of no response appropriately as well as selecting a distribution that fits the RT data is more than just a technical phase in the analysis.

METHOD

This work used simulation of predefined distributions and real-world data.

RESULTS

It was demonstrated that selecting the appropriate distribution and treating nonresponse cases appropriately affect the shape and characteristics of the density, survival, and hazard functions.

CONCLUSIONS

The suggested process has the ability to provide researchers with additional information regarding the nature of the traffic scenes that enables differentiating between various hazardous situations and between various users with different characteristics such as age or experience.

The effects of repetitive presentation of specific hazards on eye movements in hazard perception training, of experienced and young-inexperienced drivers

Recent evidence shows that compared to experienced drivers, young-inexperienced drivers are more likely to be involved in a crash mainly due to their poor hazard perception (HP) abilities. This skill develops with experience and may be developed through training. We assumed that as any other skill, HP developed through implicit learning. Nevertheless, current training methods, rely on deliberate learning where young-inexperienced drivers are instructed what hazards that they should seek and where they might be located. In this exploratory study, we investigated the effectiveness of a novel training procedure, in which learners were repeatedly exposed to target video clips of driving scenarios embedded within filler scenarios. Each of the target videos included scenarios of either a visible hazard, a hidden materialized hazard or hidden unmaterialized hazard. Twenty-three young-inexperienced drivers and 35 experienced drivers participated in training session followed by a learning transference testing session and 24 additional young-inexperienced drivers participated only in the transference testing session with no training, during which participants were shown novel hazards video clips. Participants responded by pressing a button when they identified a hazard. Eye movement was also tracked using fixations patterns as a proxy to evaluate HP performance. During training, young-inexperienced drivers gradually increased their focus on visible materialized hazards but exhibited no learning curve with respect to hidden hazards. During the learning transference session, both trained groups focused on hazards earlier compared to untrained drivers. These results imply that repetitive training may facilitate HP acquisition among young-inexperienced drivers. Patterns concerning experienced drivers are also discussed.

The efficacy of a brief hazard perception interventional program for child bicyclists to improve perceptive standards

INTRODUCTION

Even though child bicyclists are highly vulnerable in traffic only few studies focused on providing child bicyclists with means to enhance their abilities to deal with the complexity of dynamic traffic situations. The current study therefore evaluated whether a brief hazard perception intervention might be effective to improve hazard perception skills in child bicyclists towards a level more comparable to adult bicyclists.

METHODS

Eighty children of the fourth grade (9.03 ± 0.43 years; 34 girls) and forty-six adults (34.67 ± 14.25 years age; 24 woman) first performed a Hazard Perception test for bicyclists. Response rate, reaction times, first fixation, duration of the first fixation, dwell time and total number of fixations on the events were measured. Next, the children took part in the HP intervention in which video clips of dangerous traffic situations were presented. The intervention comprised two classroom sessions of one hour (1/week). A post-test was performed one day after and the retention-test three weeks after the intervention.

RESULTS

Children responded to more covert hazards immediately after the intervention (p < 0.05), but did not improve their response rate for overt hazards. Reaction times for the covert hazards improved on the post-test (p < 0.001) compared to the pre-test but this effect was reduced on the retention test. There was no effect of the intervention for entry time of the first fixation but the duration of the first fixation increased for the covert hazards (p < 0.05). Children made fewer fixations on the event compared to adults (p < 0.001), except for the covert hazards on the retention-test. The training also increased the number of fixations for the overt hazards on the post-test (p < 0.001) and the retention-test (p < 0.001) but only increased on the retention test for the covert hazards (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrated that a brief intervention for training hazard perception skills in child bicyclists is able to improve children's situation awareness and hazard perception for potential dangerous situations. The training, however, was too short to improve children to higher adult levels.

Crash probability estimation via quantifying driver hazard perception

Crash probability estimation is an important method to predict the potential reduction of crash probability contributed by forward collision avoidance technologies (FCATs). In this study, we propose a practical approach to estimate crash probability, which combines a field operational test and numerical simulations of a typical rear-end crash model. To consider driver hazard perception characteristics, we define a novel hazard perception measure, called as driver risk response time, by considering both time-to-collision (TTC) and driver braking response to impending collision risk in a near-crash scenario. Also, we establish a driving database under mixed Chinese traffic conditions based on a CMBS (Collision Mitigation Braking Systems)-equipped vehicle. Applying the crash probability estimation in this database, we estimate the potential decrease in crash probability owing to use of CMBS. A comparison of the results with CMBS on and off shows a 13.7% reduction of crash probability in a typical rear-end near-crash scenario with a one-second delay of driver's braking response. These results indicate that CMBS is positive in collision prevention, especially in the case of inattentive drivers or ole drivers. The proposed crash probability estimation offers a practical way for evaluating the safety benefits in the design and testing of FCATs.

Hazard perception training in young bicyclists improves early detection of risk: A cluster-randomized controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

Since child bicyclists are more likely to get involved in a traffic crash, there is a stringent need to provide child bicyclists with tailored interventions in order to enhance their capabilities to deal with the complexity of traffic situations. The current study therefore aimed to test the effectiveness of a hazard anticipation training in young bicyclists by means of eye tracking technology.

METHODS

A cluster-randomized controlled design was used in which participating schools were randomly assigned to the intervention or the control group. At first, a baseline hazard anticipation test was carried out in the intervention group (78 children; 9.56±0.38years of age) and the control group (46 children; 9.58±0.41years of age). Child bicyclists who participated in the intervention followed the training that consisted of two classroom sessions. In each session children were presented with video clips from the perspective of a bicyclist encountering various (potentially) dangerous traffic situations. Following the intervention, a post-test directly after the training and a retention test three weeks later were completed. The control group received the intervention after the retention test.

RESULTS

Trained child bicyclists were found to detect more hazards and reacted quicker compared to the control group that did not receive the training. However, the training did not result in improvements in anticipatory visual search behaviour.

CONCLUSION

Trained child bicyclists seemed to have developed a better processing regarding potential dangerous situations but were not able to 'see' the hazard sooner. The potential of a brief hazard anticipation training is discussed.

Commentary driver training: Effects of commentary exposure, practice and production on hazard perception and eye movements

Commentary driving typically involves being trained in how to produce a verbal running commentary about what you can see, what you are doing, what might happen and what action you will take to avoid potential hazards, while driving. Although video-based commentary training has been associated with subsequent hazard perception improvements, it can have a negative impact on hazard perception when a live commentary is produced at test (Young, Chapman, & Crundall, 2014). In the current study we use balanced training and testing blocks to isolate the effects of commentary exposure, production of a commentary with and without practice, and learning from earlier self-generation of commentary on behavioural and eye movement measures. Importantly, both commentary exposed and unexposed groups gave hazard perception responses during the commentary video, ensuring that the unexposed control group remained engaged in the procedure throughout. Results show that producing a live commentary is detrimental to concurrent hazard perception, even after practice, and does not enhance any later effect of commentary exposure. Although commentary exposure led to an initial increase in the accuracy of hazard perception responses, this effect was limited to the first occasion of testing, and showed no later benefits relative to engaged hazard exposure.

Hazard Perception in Driving

Hazard perception in driving refers to a driver’s ability to anticipate potentially dangerous situations on the road ahead and has been the subject of research for over 50 years. It is typically measured using computer-based hazard-perception tests and has been associated with both retrospective and prospective crash risk, as well as key crash-risk factors such as distraction, fatigue, alcohol consumption, speed choice, and age-related declines. It can also differentiate high- and lower-risk driver groups. The problem is that it is also a skill that appears to take decades of driving experience to acquire. This raises the question of whether it is possible and practical to accelerate this learning process via assessment and training in order to improve traffic safety. We have evidence that, in contrast to most driver education and assessment interventions, hazard-perception testing and training appear to have the capability to reduce crash risk. For example, the inclusion of a hazard-perception test in the UK driver licensing process has been estimated to reduce drivers’ non-low-speed public-road crash rates by 11.3% in the year following their test.

Can child-pedestrians' hazard perception skills be enhanced?

OBJECTIVE

Traffic collisions yield a substantial rate of morbidity and injury among child-pedestrians. We explored the formation of an innovative hazard perception training intervention - Child-pedestrians Anticipate and Act Hazard Perception Training (CA(2)HPT). Training was based upon enhancing participants' ability to anticipate potential hazards by exposing them to an array of traffic scenes viewed from different angles.

METHOD

Twenty-four 7-9-year-olds have participated. Trainees underwent a 40-min intervention of observing typical residential traffic scenarios in a simulated dome projection environment while engaging in a hazard detection task. Trainees were encouraged to note differences between the scenarios presented to them from separate angles (a pedestrian's point-of-view and a higher perspective angle). Next, trainees and control group members were required to perform crossing decision tasks.

RESULTS

Trainees were found to be more aware of potential hazards related to restricted field of view relative to control.

CONCLUSIONS

Child pedestrians are responsive to training and actively detecting materialized hazards may enrich child-pedestrians' ability to cross roads.

A Review of Hazard Anticipation Training Programs for Young Drivers

PURPOSE

Poor hazard anticipation skills are a risk factor associated with high motor vehicle crash rates of young drivers. A number of programs have been developed to improve these skills. The purpose of this review was to assess the empirical literature on hazard anticipation training for young drivers.

METHODS

Studies were included if they (1) included an assessment of hazard anticipation training outcomes; (2) were published between January 1, 1980 and December 31, 2013 in an English language peer-reviewed journal or conference proceeding; and (3) included at least one group that uniquely comprised a cohort of participants aged <21 years. Nineteen studies met inclusion criteria.

RESULTS

Studies used a variety of training methods including interactive computer programs, videos, simulation, commentary driving, or a combination of approaches. Training effects were predominantly measured through computer-based testing and driving simulation with eye tracking. Four studies included an on-road evaluation. Most studies evaluated short-term outcomes (immediate or few days). In all studies, young drivers showed improvement in selected hazard anticipation outcomes but none investigated crash effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Although there is promise in existing programs, future research should include long-term follow-up, evaluate crash outcomes, and assess the optimal timing of hazard anticipation training taking into account the age and experience level of young drivers.

Driving speed of young novice and experienced drivers in simulated hazard anticipation scenes

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we aimed to demonstrate analysis methods that are sensitive to speed-related differences between experienced and young novice drivers. These differences may be linked to determining which group is better at anticipating hazards.

BACKGROUND

Awareness of hazardous situations, especially potential ones, is a major discriminator between experienced and young novice drivers who tend to misidentify potential hazards in the traffic environment.

METHOD

Experienced and young novice drivers were asked to drive a sequence of 14 scenarios in a driving simulator. Scenarios were created in two city areas, residential and business district, and included various types of hazards. Group homogeneity of speed for each group of drivers was computed for each scenario, and two business district scenarios were subjected to piecewise linear regression analysis.

RESULTS

Group homogeneity analysis showed consistent and significant experience-based differences across all scenarios, revealing that the experienced drivers as a group were more homogenous in choosing their driving speed. Differences between groups were larger in the business district where speed was less restricted. Piecewise linear regression analysis revealed that experienced drivers approached uncontrolled intersections by slowing down and responded earlier to materialized events.

CONCLUSION

Young novice drivers were more likely than experienced drivers to choose diverse values of speed at any given road section, presumably due to their poor awareness of potential and hidden hazards. Unlike other analysis methods, it is argued that group homogeneity of speed is a more sensitive measurement to reveal these gaps.

APPLICATION

Speed management could be the basis of future hazard anticipation simulator assessments.

Development and validation of the Spanish Hazard Perception Test

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the current study is to develop and obtain valid evidence for a hazard perception test suitable for the Spanish driving population. To obtain valid evidence to support the use of the test, the effect of hazardous and quasi-hazardous situations on the participants' hazard prediction is analyzed and the pattern of results for drivers with different driving experience--that is, learner, novice, and expert drivers and reoffender vs. nonoffender drivers--is compared. Potentially hazardous situations are those that develop without involving any real hazard (i.e., the driver did not actually have to decelerate or make any evasive maneuver to avoid a potential collision). The current study analyzed repeat offender drivers attending compulsory reeducation programs as a result of reaching the maximum number of penalty points on their driving license due to repeated violations of traffic laws.

METHOD

A new video-based hazard perception test was developed, using a total of 20 hazardous situation videos plus 8 quasi-hazardous situation videos. They were selected from 167 recordings of natural hazards in real Spanish driving settings.

RESULTS

The test showed adequate psychometric properties and evidence of validity, distinguishing between different types of drivers. Psychometric results confirm a final version of the hazard perception test composed of 11 video clips of hazards and 6 video clips of quasi-hazards, for which an overall Cronbach's alpha coefficient of.77 was obtained. A lack of ability to detect quasi-hazards and distinguish them from hazardous situations was also found for learner, novice, and reoffender drivers. Learner drivers obtained lower average scores than novice and experienced drivers with the hazardous situation videos, and learner drivers obtained lower average scores than experienced drivers with the quasi-hazardous situation videos, suggesting that the ability to correctly identify hazardous traffic situations may develop early by accumulating initial driving experience. However, the ability to correctly identify quasi-hazardous situations may develop later with the accumulation of further driving experience. Developing this ability is also difficult for reoffender drivers.

CONCLUSION

The test has adequate psychometric properties and is useful in distinguishing between learner, novice, and expert drivers. In addition, it is useful in that it analyzes the performance of both safe and unsafe drivers (reoffenders who have already lost their driving license).