Learning to Use an Alphabetic Writing System

Silent word-reading fluency is strongly associated with orthotactic sensitivity among elementary school children

Some written languages (the so-called "deep orthographies" such as English) have often unpredictable links to word sounds, making some written words difficult to associate with their spoken forms (i.e., to decode), thereby impeding comprehension. To read these languages efficiently for comprehension, readers require visual cues such as predictable spelling patterns (orthotactic conventions). Sensitivity to English orthotactic conventions (e.g., which letters are sometimes doubled, where configurations such as wh can typically be found in a word) was assessed in a cross-sectional sample of children (N = 271, ages 5-11 years) in kindergarten through Grade 5 using a word-likeness task. Orthotactic sensitivity was strongly correlated with silent word-reading fluency, an important reading skill used frequently in daily life to obtain information, and was modestly correlated with lexical spelling recognition. Among fluent decoders of predictable letter-sound relations, orthotactic sensitivity began to emerge prior to formal reading instruction and developed rapidly from kindergarten to Grade 2. About two thirds of dysfluent decoders (a proxy for dyslexia) demonstrated above-chance orthotactic sensitivity; however, their performance lagged behind that of fluent decoders through Grade 5. Orthotactic acquisition, possible reasons for impairment, and classroom implications are discussed.

Derivational Morphology Bridges Phonology and Orthography: Insights Into the Development of Word-Specific Spellings by Superior, Average, and Poor Spellers

Purpose Morphology, which is a bridge between phonology and orthography, plays an important role in the development of word-specific spellings. This study, which employed longitudinal sampling of typically developing students in Grades 3, 4, and 5, explored how the misspellings of words with derivational suffixes shed light on the interplay of phonological, orthographic, and morphological (POM) linguistic features as students learn to integrate POM features appropriately to generate correct spellings. Method Sixty typically developing Grade 3 students were tested using the Spelling subtest from the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition (Wechsler, 2001) and were divided into superior, average, and poor spellers. Students' spelling skill was then assessed using the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Second Edition annually for another 2 years. Misspelled derivations from these three testing sessions were analyzed for linguistic feature errors and error complexity/severity. Differences in the integration of POM features across spelling ability levels at Grades 3-5 were analyzed with Kruskal-Wallis analyses of variance. Results Longitudinal results demonstrated POM integration for the development of word-specific spellings involving derivational morphology was in its initial stages over Grades 3-5 and was influenced by spelling ability level. Information from a qualitative analysis revealed considerable variability in how students applied their POM knowledge to spell complex derivations. Conclusions Word-specific spellings draw on multiple linguistic codes-P, O, and M-and their interconnections. It involves more than an understanding of orthographic rules. Rather, accurate spelling develops through an increased understanding of the phoneme-grapheme relationships as facilitated by the identification of word parts (base + or - affixes) in written language. Educational and clinical implications are discussed.

Emergent Writing in Preschoolers: Preliminary Evidence for a Theoretical Framework

Researchers and educators use the term emergent literacy to refer to a broad set of skills and attitudes that serve as foundational skills for acquiring success in later reading and writing; however, models of emergent literacy have generally focused on reading and reading-related behaviors. Hence, the primary aim of this study was to articulate and evaluate a theoretical model of the components of emergent writing. Alternative models of the structure of individual and developmental differences of emergent writing and writing-related skills were examined in 372 preschool children who ranged in age from 3- to 5-years using confirmatory factor analysis. Results from a confirmatory factor analysis provide evidence that these emergent writing skills are best described by three correlated but distinct factors, (a) Conceptual Knowledge, (b) Procedural Knowledge, and (c) Generative Knowledge. Evidence that these three emergent writing factors show different patterns of relations to emergent literacy constructs is presented. Implications for understanding the development of writing and assessment of early writing skills are discussed.

Using symbols: developmental perspectives

The frequent and fluent use of symbols is a distinguishing characteristic of human thought and communication. Symbols free us from the bounds of our own direct experience and allow us to learn about the world from others. To use a symbol, children need to (1) understand the intention that led to the creation and use of the symbol, and (b) how the symbol relates to its referent. For example, to use a map, children need to know that it is intended to communicate spatial information, and how locations on the map correspond to locations in the world. In some cases, even very young children are capable of meeting both requirements. For example, infants quickly learn that people intend to communicate when they use words. Moreover, they quickly learn the meanings of many specific words and the objects or concepts that they stand for. In other cases, such as learning to use maps of large-scale space, children may struggle to understand what the symbol is intended to communicate and the specific relations between elements of the symbol and their referents in the world. Here we review the development of children's understanding of words, photographs, scale models, maps, and text. We consider when and how children gain insight into the communicative intent of each of these symbols and how they learn to establish connections between the symbol and what it represents. This review helps to integrate research on the development of children's understanding of a variety of symbol systems. For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors have declared no conflicts of interest for this article.