Morphological and morphometric changes in the faces of female-to-male (FtM) transsexual people

Transcending time: the forensic anthropological case study of three unidentified transgender women in Italy in the early 1990s

In forensic anthropology, the estimation of skeletal sex results in a dichotomous outcome: male or female. This poses challenges when dealing with transgender individuals. Italy has the highest rate per capita of transgender murders, making their identification a compelling issue. This study presents three cases of unidentified skeletal remains of transgender women (MtF) that underwent autopsies in the 1990s at the Institute of Legal Medicine of Milan. The transgender status of the individuals was determined from the autopsy records which indicated the co-existence of breast implants and male genitalia. The biological profile was created by estimating sex, age, ancestry, and stature, and the bones were investigated looking for evidence of Facial Feminization Surgery (FFS). Anthropological estimations revealed that the skeletons belong to male, adults, European individuals, between 164 and 184 cm. Fragmented gelatinous masses were found in association with two skeletons, which were interpreted as remnants of breast implants. In two cases, signs of remodeling of the cortical surface were observed on the zygomatic bones, although the bone marks observed here were not specific enough to link them to FFS. Despite some limitations, this study highlights the need for greater awareness among practitioners about this limitedly addressed issue, advocating for a more inclusive forensic anthropology that strives to improve methods and interpretation of evidence for the identification of transgender individuals.

Sex perception from facial structure: Categorization with and without skin texture and color

Sex identification of faces without any cultural or conventional sex cue is primarily based on two independent components: a) shape or facial structure, and b) surface reflectance (skin texture and color). The present work studied the relative contribution of each component by means of two experiments based on 3D face models created with different degrees of masculinity-femininity within a sex continuum. The first experiment utilized totally artificial faces created ex novo by computer. The second employed face models created from photographs of real people. The results of both experiments were consistent. As expected, when both components were present in a face, sex was correctly classified in almost all the cases. More interestingly, the contribution of the "pure" facial structure to the sex perception (with no surface reflectance) was about 80%, whereas 20% of the total information was provided by the surface reflectance. Furthermore, examination of the psychometric curves suggests that the information provided by surface reflectance contributes to a categorical perception of facial sex, since when it is removed the sex is perceived in a more continuous / less categorical way. On the other hand, our stimuli presented a certain "male" bias, repeatedly found in the literature on facial sex perception.

Potential explanations of behavioural and other differences and similarities between males and females with autism spectrum disorder

Several potential explanations may be dependent on the dynamics of prenatal and postnatal testosterone in males and females, and to be consistent with Baron-Cohen's concept of extreme male brain. This paper explores the evidence that male and female autistic subjects differ on the average in that they have had different exposures to the causes of autism, females bearing higher genetic burdens for ASD (autistic spectrum disorder), and males having a greater exposure to high intrauterine levels of testosterone (T). The high levels of intrauterine (and possibly postnatal) testosterone to which ASD cases have been exposed, cause a less masculinized physical habitus (including facial features) in exposed males, and a more masculinized physical habitus in exposed females. ASD genes (as opposed to intrauterine testosterone) are mainly responsible for a low mean IQ in ASD (especially female cases). Exposure to high intrauterine T increases the probability that foetuses will be male, thus potentially explaining the high sex ratio (proportion male) of cases of ASD. The Gender Incoherence Model seems to be based on facts unrelated directly to autism. The shifts towards the other sex are argued to be consequent on sex-different reactions to prenatal exposure to high T, not on the pathology itself. The suspected underdiagnosis of female cases is partially dependent on the different proportions of environmental and genetic causes to which male and female cases are hypothesized to have been exposed, and the consequent 'more normal' behaviour of female cases.

Facial features and unethical behavior - Doped athletes show higher facial width-to-height ratios than non-doping sanctioned athletes

Past research has emphasized the role of facial structures in predicting social behavior. In particular the facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) was found to be a reliable predictor for antisocial and unethical behavior. The current study was aimed at examining this association in the field of sports: FWHRs of 146 doping sanctioned athletes in athletics (37 male/38 female) and weightlifting (44 male/27 female) were compared to the fWHRs of randomly chosen non-doping sanctioned athletes of the Top Ten at the World Championship 2017 and Olympic Games 2016 in both sports (146 athletes). The results showed that doping sanctioned athletes due to the use of anabolic steroids had larger fWHRs than non-doping sanctioned athletes. However, doping sanctioned athletes due to other doping rule violations than the use of anabolic steroids, did not show this effect. The study provides empirical evidence for the relation between fWHR and unethical behavior in a real-world setting and contributes to the discussion about fWHR’s biological origin, emphasizing the role of anabolic steroids. A mutual interaction between fWHR and doping behavior is discussed, at which a larger fWHR might signify a higher tendency to behave unethically, whereas the consequential intake of anabolic steroids might also shape individuals’ faces.