Mycotoxicosis – diagnosis, prevention and control: past practices and future perspectives

Outbreak of aflatoxicosis in a dairy herd induced depletion in milk yield and high abortion rate in Pakistan

This case report investigated the outbreak of aflatoxicosis in a dairy herd in Pakistan, which resulted in 30 abortions of 40 confirmed (75%) pregnant cows in a period of 35 days and in 18.8% depression of farm average milk production for the entire herd. The analysis of the concentrate feed of the total mixed ration (TMR), using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) procedures from two different local laboratories, indicated concentrations of 60 μg/kg dry matter (DM) of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and 100 μg/kg DM of total aflatoxins (AFs: sum of B1, B2, G1 and G2). Subsequently, a confirmatory analysis with a more sensitive and validated multi-metabolite liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) method was performed. This analysis detected a concentration of total AFs in the TMR of 166 μg/kg DM ± 3.5 (AFB1:134, AFB2:17.4 and AFM1:14.9 μg/kg DM). The concentrate feed (55% of the TMR DM) was confirmed as a source of contamination, presenting a concentration >29 times higher than the EU-maximum limit value (5.68 μg/kg DM). Additionally, the multi-mycotoxin analysis evidenced the co-occurrence of 81 other toxic and potentially toxic fungal metabolites in the fed TMR. After replacing the contaminated concentrate feed with feedstuffs of the same formulation but from a new charge of ingredients, the abortion episodes ceased, and milk production increased significantly. In conclusion, the data of this case report suggest that AFs may be associated with pregnancy losses in dairy cattle and milk production depression. From the public health perspective, the data also indicate the need for a more careful examination of dairy animal feed in Pakistan. Since the high concentration of AFB1 detected in feed and considering the literature-reported transfer rates (1-6%) of this toxin to AFM1 (carcinogen for humans) in milk, the milk produced during the outbreak period is expected to be contaminated with AFM1, which raises public health concerns.

Aflatoxin B1-associated oxidative stress along with toxicopathological and immunological alterations is efficiently counteracted by dietary supplementation of distillery yeast sludge in broilers

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is among the most potent genotoxic and carcinogenic mycotoxins and is a major source of distress for the growing poultry sector. On the other hand, distillery yeast sludge or distillery sludge (DS) is a byproduct of molasses-based industries. It is often treated as a waste despite containing abundant nutrients particularly protein, basic amino acids, and vitamins along with other macro and micronutrients. This study was designed to investigate the oxidative stress and immunological alterations induced by AFB1 and their amelioration by dietary supplementation with DS. For this purpose, 360 newly hatched broiler chicks were randomly divided into twelve groups (30 birds each) and fed different combinations of AFB1 (100, 200, or 600 µg/kg) and DS (5 or 10 g/kg) for 42 days. The parameters under consideration were body weight, feed conversion ratio (FCR), relative organ weights, histopathological examination of different visceral organs, total antioxidant capacity, antibody response to intravenous injection of sheep red blood cells, in situ lymphoproliferative response to phytohemagglutinin-P, and phagocytic potential through a carbon clearance assay system. The results of this study established that DS supplementation ameliorated AFB1-associated oxidative stress and ameliorated toxicopathological and immunological anomalies in groups given AFB1 at 100 µg/kg and 200 µg/kg; however, little to no relief was observed in birds fed AFB1 at 600 µg/kg. The determination of the actual ratio of the AFB1 to the DS for substantiating the ameliorating effects requires further investigation.

Ochratoxin A as alarming health in livestock and human: A review on molecular interactions, mechanism of toxicity, detection, detoxification, and dietary prophylaxis

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic metabolite produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium fungi commonly found in raw plant sources and other feeds. This review comprises an extensive evaluation of the origin and proprieties of OTA, toxicokinetics, biotransformation, and toxicodynamics of ochratoxins. In in vitro and in vivo studies, the compatibility of OTA with oxidative stress is observed through the production of free radicals, resulting in genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. The OTA leads to nephrotoxicity as the chief target organ is the kidney. Other OTA excretion and absorption rates are observed, and the routes of elimination include faeces, urine, and breast milk. The alternations in the Phe moiety of OTA are the precursor for the amino acid alternation, bringing about Phe-hydroxylase and Phe-tRNA synthase, resulting in the complete dysfunction of cellular metabolism. Biodetoxification using specific microorganisms decreased the DNA damage, lipid peroxidation, and cytotoxicity. This review addressed the ability of antioxidants and the dietary components as prophylactic measures to encounter toxicity and demonstrated their capability to counteract the chronic exposure through supplementation as feed additives.

Aflatoxins associated oxidative stress and immunological alterations are mitigated by dietary supplementation of Pichia kudriavzevii in broiler chicks

Mycotoxins are the secondary metabolites of certain toxigenic fungi which pose severe health stress in humans, animals and poultry. Certain biological agents and components are used to adsorb mycotoxins in poultry industry which provide promising results in this regard. Pichia kudriazevii (PK), a novel yeast, has the ability to enhance the immune status of poultry chicks. The present study was designed to investigate the ameliorative potential of PK against aflatoxins associated immunosuppression and oxidative stress in broiler chicks. 180-one day old broiler chicks were equally divided into six groups and given different combinations of aflatoxins (300 and 600 μg/kg) and PK (1 g/kg). Parameters studied were antibody response to sheep red blood cells, lymphoproliferative response to PHA-P; phagocytic response by carbon clearance assay system, total antioxidant capacity and total oxidant status of chicks. Results of this experiment confirmed the immunomodulation and antioxidant capacity of PK against 300 μg/kg aflatoxin level. However such amelioration was partial when PK was used with 600 μg/kg aflatoxins. Moreover, the exact ratio of aflatoxin: PK to cause such amelioration still needs to be investigated.

In Vitro Inhibitory Activity of Cell-Free Supernatants of Lactobacillus Spp. and Bacillus Spp. Against Fusarium graminearum

In this study, the antifungal activity of cell-free supernatant (CFS) of Lactobacillus spp. (Lactobacillus plantarum CCM 1904; L81, Lactobacillus fermentum; 2I3, Lactobacilus reuteri; 2/6, L26;) and Bacillus spp. (Bacillus subtilis CCM 2794, Bacillus licheniformis CCM 2206) against two strains of Fusarium graminearum CCM F-683 and Fusarium graminearum CCM 8244 were investigated in vitro. All tested CFS of Lactobacillus spp. were able to inhibit the growth of both strains of Fusarium graminearum. The highest inhibitory effect (IE) (56.5 %) against F. graminearum CCM F-683 was observed for CFS Lactobacillus fermentum (2I3) at the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) (2.25 ± 0.56 mg.ml–1). CFS of Lactobacillus reuteri (2/6) showed the best IE (40.0 %) against F. graminearum CCM 8244 (2/6) at the MIC 1.25 mg.ml–1. However, no inhibitory effect of Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus licheniformis CFS against both strains of F. graminearum were observed, even at the highest tested concentration of 5.0 mg.ml–1.

Selected Instrumental Techniques Applied in Food and Feed: Quality, Safety and Adulteration Analysis

This review presents an overall glance at selected instrumental analytical techniques and methods used in food analysis, focusing on their primary food science research applications. The methods described represent approaches that have already been developed or are currently being implemented in our laboratories. Some techniques are widespread and well known and hence we will focus only in very specific examples, whilst the relatively less common techniques applied in food science are covered in a wider fashion. We made a particular emphasis on the works published on this topic in the last five years. When appropriate, we referred the reader to specialized reports highlighting each technique's principle and focused on said technologies' applications in the food analysis field. Each example forwarded will consider the advantages and limitations of the application. Certain study cases will typify that several of the techniques mentioned are used simultaneously to resolve an issue, support novel data, or gather further information from the food sample.

Neuroimmune disruptions from naturally occurring levels of mycotoxins

Substantial pieces of evidence support the potential of exogenous toxins in disrupting neuroimmune homeostasis. It appears that mycotoxins are one of the noticeable sources of naturally occurring substances dysregulating the immune system, which involves the physiology of many organs, such as the central nervous system (CNS). The induction of inflammatory responses in microglial cells and astrocytes, the CNS resident cells with immunological characteristics, could interrupt the hemostasis upon even with low-level exposure to mycotoxins. The inevitable widespread occurrence of a low level of mycotoxins in foods and feed is likely increasing worldwide, predisposing individuals to potential neuroimmunological dysregulations. This paper reviews the current understanding of mycotoxins' neuro-immunotoxic features under low-dose exposure and the possible ways for detoxification and clearance as a perspective.

Effects of licorice extract, probiotic, toxin binder and poultry litter biochar on performance, immune function, blood indices and liver histopathology of broilers exposed to aflatoxin-B1

Probiotics, toxin binders, and plant extracts improve health and immunity of broiler chickens exposed to aflatoxin. The effects of licorice extract (LE), Protexin probiotic, toxin binder (Agrabound), and poultry litter biochar (PLB) in experimental aflatoxicosis were evaluated. In a completely randomized design, 504 broiler chickens were allotted to 7 treatments and 6 replicates with 12 broiler chickens in each. The experimental groups were as follows: T1) basal diet (B) without any feed additive or aflatoxin B1 (AFB1); T2) B + 0.5 mg AFB1/kg; T3) T2 + 3 g LE/kg; T4) T2 + 6 g LE/kg; T5) T2 + 0.5 g Protexin/kg; T6) T2 + 1 g toxin binder/kg, and T7) T2 + 5 g/kg PLB. Broiler chickens fed AFB diet (T2) had lower body weight gain at the end of grower period and higher feed conversion ratio at the end of the finisher period, whereas inclusion of LE, probiotic, toxin binder, or PLB restores body weight of broiler chickens to that of the control group. Aflatoxicosis decreased total protein, TG, albumin, Ca, and P concentrations and greater uric acid concentration in broiler chickens as compared with the control group (P < 0.05). As compared with the T2 group, inclusion of 3 mg LE/kg increased serum total protein; inclusion of 3 mg LE/kg, probiotic, and toxin binder increased TG; inclusion of 3 and 6 mg LE/kg, probiotic, and PLB increased serum albumin; and the whole additive decreased serum uric acid of broiler chickens comparing with the control group. Lymphocyte percentage, avian influenza antibody titer, thymus relative weight, and immune response to phytohemagglutinin were decreased in the T2 group, whereas heterophil percentage and heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio were increased (P < 0.05). Aflatoxicosis increased breast meat malondialdehyde concentration, liver enzymes activities, and number of fat vacuoles (P < 0.05). As compared with the T2 group, all of the additives lowered alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alanine transaminase activities, breast meat malondialdehyde concentration, and liver pathological damages (P < 0.05). It can be concluded that all of the additives are capable to decrease the negative impact of AFB1 on broiler chickens' performance, blood indices, and immunity.