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Akingbesote ND, Leitner BP, Jovin DG, Desrouleaux R, Owusu D, Zhu W, Li Z, Pollak MN, Perry RJ. Gene and protein expression and metabolic flux analysis reveals metabolic scaling in liver ex vivo and in vivo. eLife 2023; 12:e78335. [PMID: 37219930 PMCID: PMC10205083 DOI: 10.7554/elife.78335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Metabolic scaling, the inverse correlation of metabolic rates to body mass, has been appreciated for more than 80 years. Studies of metabolic scaling have largely been restricted to mathematical modeling of caloric intake and oxygen consumption, and mostly rely on computational modeling. The possibility that other metabolic processes scale with body size has not been comprehensively studied. To address this gap in knowledge, we employed a systems approach including transcriptomics, proteomics, and measurement of in vitro and in vivo metabolic fluxes. Gene expression in livers of five species spanning a 30,000-fold range in mass revealed differential expression according to body mass of genes related to cytosolic and mitochondrial metabolic processes, and to detoxication of oxidative damage. To determine whether flux through key metabolic pathways is ordered inversely to body size, we applied stable isotope tracer methodology to study multiple cellular compartments, tissues, and species. Comparing C57BL/6 J mice with Sprague-Dawley rats, we demonstrate that while ordering of metabolic fluxes is not observed in in vitro cell-autonomous settings, it is present in liver slices and in vivo. Together, these data reveal that metabolic scaling extends beyond oxygen consumption to other aspects of metabolism, and is regulated at the level of gene and protein expression, enzyme activity, and substrate supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ngozi D Akingbesote
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Physiology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
- Department of Internal Medicine – Endocrinology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
| | - Brooks P Leitner
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Physiology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
- Department of Internal Medicine – Endocrinology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
| | - Daniel G Jovin
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Physiology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
- Department of Internal Medicine – Endocrinology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
| | - Reina Desrouleaux
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Physiology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
| | - Dennis Owusu
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Physiology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
- Department of Internal Medicine – Endocrinology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
| | - Wanling Zhu
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Physiology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
- Department of Internal Medicine – Endocrinology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
| | - Zongyu Li
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Physiology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
- Department of Internal Medicine – Endocrinology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
| | - Michael N Pollak
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General HospitalMontrealCanada
- Department of Oncology, McGill UniversityMontrealCanada
| | - Rachel J Perry
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Physiology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
- Department of Internal Medicine – Endocrinology, Yale UniversityNew HavenUnited States
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2
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Roman S, Bertolotti F. A master equation for power laws. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:220531. [PMID: 36483760 PMCID: PMC9727680 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.220531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
We propose a new mechanism for generating power laws. Starting from a random walk, we first outline a simple derivation of the Fokker-Planck equation. By analogy, starting from a certain Markov chain, we derive a master equation for power laws that describes how the number of cascades changes over time (cascades are consecutive transitions that end when the initial state is reached). The partial differential equation has a closed form solution which gives an explicit dependence of the number of cascades on their size and on time. Furthermore, the power law solution has a natural cut-off, a feature often seen in empirical data. This is due to the finite size a cascade can have in a finite time horizon. The derivation of the equation provides a justification for an exponent equal to 2, which agrees well with several empirical distributions, including Richardson's Law on the size and frequency of deadly conflicts. Nevertheless, the equation can be solved for any exponent value. In addition, we propose an urn model where the number of consecutive ball extractions follows a power law. In all cases, the power law is manifest over the entire range of cascade sizes, as shown through log-log plots in the frequency and rank distributions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabin Roman
- Centre for the Study of Existential Risk, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Odyssean Institute, London, UK
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3
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Glazier DS. How Metabolic Rate Relates to Cell Size. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:1106. [PMID: 35892962 PMCID: PMC9332559 DOI: 10.3390/biology11081106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Metabolic rate and its covariation with body mass vary substantially within and among species in little understood ways. Here, I critically review explanations (and supporting data) concerning how cell size and number and their establishment by cell expansion and multiplication may affect metabolic rate and its scaling with body mass. Cell size and growth may affect size-specific metabolic rate, as well as the vertical elevation (metabolic level) and slope (exponent) of metabolic scaling relationships. Mechanistic causes of negative correlations between cell size and metabolic rate may involve reduced resource supply and/or demand in larger cells, related to decreased surface area per volume, larger intracellular resource-transport distances, lower metabolic costs of ionic regulation, slower cell multiplication and somatic growth, and larger intracellular deposits of metabolically inert materials in some tissues. A cell-size perspective helps to explain some (but not all) variation in metabolic rate and its body-mass scaling and thus should be included in any multi-mechanistic theory attempting to explain the full diversity of metabolic scaling. A cell-size approach may also help conceptually integrate studies of the biological regulation of cellular growth and metabolism with those concerning major transitions in ontogenetic development and associated shifts in metabolic scaling.
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Cristina A, Samson R, Horemans N, Van Hees M, Wannijn J, Bruggeman M, Sweeck L. Interception of radionuclides by planophile crops: A simple semi-empirical modelling approach in case of nuclear accident fallout. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 266:115308. [PMID: 32835917 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Shortly after an atmospheric release, the interception of radionuclides by crop canopies represents the main uptake pathway leading to food chain contamination. The food chain models currently used in European emergency decision support systems require a large number of input parameters, which inevitably leads to high model complexity. In this study, we have established a new relationship for wet deposited radionuclides to simplify the current modelling approaches. This relationship is based on the hypothesis that the stage of plant development is the key factor governing the interception of radionuclides by crops having horizontally oriented leaves (planophile crops). The interception fraction (f) and the leaf area index normalized (fLAI) and mass normalized (fB) interception fractions were assessed for spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and radish (Raphanus sativus) at different stages of plant development and for different contamination treatments and plant densities. A database of 191 f values for Cs-137 and Th-229 was built and complemented with existing literature covering various radionuclides and crops with similar canopy structure. The overall f increased with the plant growth, while the reverse was observed for fB. The fLAI significantly decreased by doubling the contaminated rainfall deposited. Fitting a multiple linear regression to predict the f value as a function of the standing biomass (B), and the radionuclide form (anion and cation) led to a better estimation of the interception (R2 = 81%) than the ECOSYS-87 model (R2 = 35%). Hence, the simplified modelling approach here proposed seems to be a suitable risk assessment tool as fewer parameters will minimize the model complexity and facilitate the decision-making procedures in case of emergencies, when countermeasures need to be identified and implemented promptly.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Cristina
- Biosphere Impact Studies, Belgian Nuclear Research Center (SCK CEN, Foundation of Public Utility), 2400, Mol, Belgium; Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - R Samson
- Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - N Horemans
- Biosphere Impact Studies, Belgian Nuclear Research Center (SCK CEN, Foundation of Public Utility), 2400, Mol, Belgium; Centre for Environmental Sciences, Hasselt University, Agoralaan Building D, 3590, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - M Van Hees
- Biosphere Impact Studies, Belgian Nuclear Research Center (SCK CEN, Foundation of Public Utility), 2400, Mol, Belgium
| | - J Wannijn
- Biosphere Impact Studies, Belgian Nuclear Research Center (SCK CEN, Foundation of Public Utility), 2400, Mol, Belgium
| | - M Bruggeman
- Biosphere Impact Studies, Belgian Nuclear Research Center (SCK CEN, Foundation of Public Utility), 2400, Mol, Belgium
| | - L Sweeck
- Biosphere Impact Studies, Belgian Nuclear Research Center (SCK CEN, Foundation of Public Utility), 2400, Mol, Belgium
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5
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Sukhotin A, Kovalev A, Sokolov E, Sokolova IM. Mitochondrial performance of a continually growing marine bivalve, Mytilus edulis, depends on body size. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb226332. [PMID: 32527963 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.226332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Allometric decline of mass-specific metabolic rate with increasing body size in organisms is a well-documented phenomenon. Despite a long history of research, the mechanistic causes of metabolic scaling with body size remain under debate. Some hypotheses suggest that intrinsic factors such as allometry of cellular and mitochondrial metabolism may contribute to the organismal-level metabolic scaling. The aim of our present study was to determine the metabolic allometry at the mitochondrial level using a continually growing marine ectotherm, the mussel Mytilus edulis, as a model. Mussels from a single cohort that considerably differed in body size were selected, implying faster growth in the larger specimens. We determined the body mass-dependent scaling of the mitochondrial proton leak respiration, respiration in the presence of ADP indicative of the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), and maximum activity of the mitochondrial electron transport system (ETS) and cytochrome c oxidase (COX). Respiration was measured at normal (15°C), and elevated (27°C) temperatures. The results demonstrated a pronounced allometric increase in both proton leak respiration and OXPHOS activity of mussel mitochondria. Mussels with faster growth (larger body size) showed an increase in OXPHOS rate, proton leak respiration rate, and ETS and COX activity (indicating an overall improved mitochondrial performance) and higher respiratory control ratio (indicating better mitochondrial coupling and potentially lower costs of mitochondrial maintenance at the same OXPHOS capacity) compared with slower growing (smaller) individuals. Our data show that the metabolic allometry at the organismal level cannot be directly explained by mitochondrial functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexey Sukhotin
- White Sea Biological Station, Zoological Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint-Petersburg 199034, Russia
| | - Anton Kovalev
- White Sea Biological Station, Zoological Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint-Petersburg 199034, Russia
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Saint-Petersburg State University, Saint-Petersburg 199034, Russia
| | - Eugene Sokolov
- Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemünde, Leibniz ScienceCampus Rostock: Phosphorus Research, D-18119 Rostock, Germany
| | - Inna M Sokolova
- Department of Marine Biology, Institute for Biological Sciences, University of Rostock, 18051 Rostock, Germany
- Department of Maritime Systems, Interdisciplinary Faculty, University of Rostock, 18059 Rostock, Germany
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6
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Baller D, Thomas DM, Cummiskey K, Bredlau C, Schwartz N, Orzechowski K, Miller RC, Odibo A, Shah R, Salafia CM. Gestational growth trajectories derived from a dynamic fetal-placental scaling law. J R Soc Interface 2019; 16:20190417. [PMID: 31662073 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2019.0417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Fetal trajectories characterizing growth rates in utero have relied primarily on goodness of fit rather than mechanistic properties exhibited in utero. Here, we use a validated fetal-placental allometric scaling law and a first principles differential equations model of placental volume growth to generate biologically meaningful fetal-placental growth curves. The growth curves form the foundation for understanding healthy versus at-risk fetal growth and for identifying the timing of key events in utero.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Baller
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Diana M Thomas
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Kevin Cummiskey
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Carl Bredlau
- Department of Computer Science, Montclair State University, Montclair, NJ 07043, USA
| | - Nadav Schwartz
- Division of Maternal Fetal Medicine, 3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | | | - Richard C Miller
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, St Barnabas Medical Center, Livingston, NJ 07039, USA
| | - Anthony Odibo
- Division of Maternal Fetal Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Ruchit Shah
- Placental Analytics, New Rochelle, NY 10538, USA
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7
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Systems biology of eukaryotic superorganisms and the holobiont concept. Theory Biosci 2018; 137:117-131. [DOI: 10.1007/s12064-018-0265-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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8
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Ballesteros FJ, Martinez VJ, Luque B, Lacasa L, Valor E, Moya A. On the thermodynamic origin of metabolic scaling. Sci Rep 2018; 8:1448. [PMID: 29362491 PMCID: PMC5780499 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-19853-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The origin and shape of metabolic scaling has been controversial since Kleiber found that basal metabolic rate of animals seemed to vary as a power law of their body mass with exponent 3/4, instead of 2/3, as a surface-to-volume argument predicts. The universality of exponent 3/4 -claimed in terms of the fractal properties of the nutrient network- has recently been challenged according to empirical evidence that observed a wealth of robust exponents deviating from 3/4. Here we present a conceptually simple thermodynamic framework, where the dependence of metabolic rate with body mass emerges from a trade-off between the energy dissipated as heat and the energy efficiently used by the organism to maintain its metabolism. This balance tunes the shape of an additive model from which different effective scalings can be recovered as particular cases, thereby reconciling previously inconsistent empirical evidence in mammals, birds, insects and even plants under a unified framework. This model is biologically motivated, fits remarkably well the data, and also explains additional features such as the relation between energy lost as heat and mass, the role and influence of different climatic environments or the difference found between endotherms and ectotherms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando J Ballesteros
- Observatori Astronòmic, Universitat de València, Parque Científico de la Universitat de València, Paterna, Spain.
| | - Vicent J Martinez
- Observatori Astronòmic, Universitat de València, Parque Científico de la Universitat de València, Paterna, Spain
| | - Bartolo Luque
- Departamento de Matemática Aplicada y Estadística, ETSI Aeronauticos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lucas Lacasa
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E14NS, UK
| | - Enric Valor
- Departament de Física de la Terra i Termodinàmica, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Andrés Moya
- Instituto de Biología Integrativa de Sistemas, Universitat de València-CSIC, Parque Científico de la Universitat de València, Paterna, Spain
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9
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Kerkhof PLM, Osto E. Women and Men in the History of Western Cardiology: Some Notes on Their Position as Patients, Role as Investigational Study Subjects, and Impact as Professionals. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1065:1-30. [PMID: 30051374 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-77932-4_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, it is generally appreciated that studies in the medical field should not only include sex-related aspects but also consider age. In the past, taking the era of Hippocrates as a starting point for the Western medical sciences, such aspects were less urgent and barely relevant. However, considering such details during daily life became increasingly important as the traditional roles of men and women in society and household converged. In the Western world, this fundamental transition process started recently and is advancing at an accelerated pace. Research about the role of women has also evolved, starting from plain history about the lives of women to a description of the relation between men and women, resulting in the gender concept. The present survey highlights a historical selection of observations referring to the impact of men and women on the medical sciences, as patient, study object, and professional. Whenever relevant, focus will be on the field of cardiovascular investigations as documented in the Western world. Rather than being exhaustive, we focus on a few remarkable icons, including Trota of Salerno, Hildegard von Bingen, and Miguel Serveto.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter L M Kerkhof
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Elena Osto
- Laboratory of Translational Nutrition Biology, Federal Institute of Technology Zurich ETHZ, Zurich, Switzerland
- Center for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- University Heart Center, Cardiology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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10
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Holford NH, Anderson BJ. Allometric size: The scientific theory and extension to normal fat mass. Eur J Pharm Sci 2017; 109S:S59-S64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2017.05.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/23/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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11
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Holford NHG, Anderson BJ. Why standards are useful for predicting doses. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2017; 83:685-687. [PMID: 28155239 PMCID: PMC6436183 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.13230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Germovsek and colleagues have recently concluded that a standard approach to modelling pharmacokinetics is not wrong and appears to be at least as useful as other ad hoc methods for describing drug concentrations. There are other advantages of this approach including learning about biology, comparing different studies, detecting errors and rationalizing dose prediction. A standard approach to size and maturation is not a panacea but provides the framework for challenging new ideas and supports a consistent method of dosing in patients of all ages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick H. G. Holford
- Department of Pharmacology & Clinical PharmacologyUniversity of AucklandNew Zealand
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12
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Schmid J, Day R, Zhang N, Dupont PY, Cox MP, Schardl CL, Minards N, Truglio M, Moore N, Harris DR, Zhou Y. Host Tissue Environment Directs Activities of an Epichloë Endophyte, While It Induces Systemic Hormone and Defense Responses in Its Native Perennial Ryegrass Host. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2017; 30:138-149. [PMID: 28027026 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-10-16-0215-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Increased resilience of pasture grasses mediated by fungal Epichloë endophytes is crucial to pastoral industries. The underlying mechanisms are only partially understood and likely involve very different activities of the endophyte in different plant tissues and responses of the plant to these. We analyzed the transcriptomes of Epichloë festucae and its host, Lolium perenne, in host tissues of different function and developmental stages. The endophyte contributed approximately 10× more to the transcriptomes than to the biomass of infected tissues. Proliferating mycelium in growing host tissues highly expressed genes involved in hyphal growth. Nonproliferating mycelium in mature plant tissues, transcriptionally equally active, highly expressed genes involved in synthesizing antiherbivore compounds. Transcripts from the latter accounted for 4% of fungal transcripts. Endophyte infection systemically but moderately increased transcription of L. perenne genes with roles in hormone biosynthesis and perception as well as stress and pathogen resistance while reducing expression of genes involved in photosynthesis. There was a good correlation between transcriptome-based observations and physiological observations. Our data indicate that the fitness-enhancing effects of the endophyte are based both on its biosynthetic activities, predominantly in mature host tissues, and also on systemic alteration of the host's hormonal responses and induction of stress response genes. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2017 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license .
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Schmid
- 1 Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - Robert Day
- 2 School of Medical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Ningxin Zhang
- 1 Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - Pierre-Yves Dupont
- 1 Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - Murray P Cox
- 1 Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - Christopher L Schardl
- 3 Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40546-0312, U.S.A
| | - Niki Minards
- 4 Manawatu Microscopy and Imaging Centre, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - Mauro Truglio
- 1 Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - Neil Moore
- 5 Computer Science Department, University of Kentucky; and
| | - Daniel R Harris
- 6 Institute for Pharmaceutical Outcomes & Policy, University of Kentucky
| | - Yanfei Zhou
- 1 Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
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