Preparation and characterisation of acephate nano-encapsulated complex

Application of nanopesticides and its toxicity evaluation through Drosophila model

Insects feed on plants and cause the growth of plants to be restricted. Moreover, the application of traditional pesticides causes harmful effects on non-target organisms and poses serious threats to the environment. The use of conventional pesticides has negative impacts on creatures that are not the intended targets. It also presents significant risks to the surrounding ecosystem. Insects that are exposed to these chemicals eventually develop resistance to them. This review could benefit researcher for future development of nanopesticides research. This is because a holistic approach has been taken to describe the multidimensional properties of nanopesticides, health and environmental concerns and its possible harmful effects on non-target organisms and physiochemical entities. The assessment of effects of the nanopesticides is also being discussed through the drosophotoxicology. The future outlooks have been suggested to take a critical analysis before commercialization or formulation of the nanopesticides.

Are the issues involving acephate already resolved? A scientometric review

Acephate is a pesticide classified as moderately toxic, and its metabolite methamidophos is highly toxic for mammals and birds; even so, it is one of the most used insecticides in pest control for agricultural and domestic use. Acephate toxicity affects both target and non-target organisms and causes serious damage to the environment. There are several studies on different perspectives of acephate, such as monitoring, toxicity, and modeling. In this sense, this research aims to identify the structure of intellectual production on acephate and analyze the gaps and trends of scientific production on acephate through a scientometric analysis. The data was obtained from the Web of Science database, and after the refinement, 1.085 documents were used. A temporal pattern of the main research objectives is displayed. Most selected studies evaluated acephate efficiency, followed by toxicity and residue detection methods. The USA, China, India, Brazil, and Japan had the highest number of publications on acephate. The keywords most utilized were pesticides, toxicity, insecticide resistance, and residue. Research involving acephate requires greater attention from areas such as ecotoxicology, biochemistry, genetics, and biotechnology. There needed to be more discussions on chronic toxicity, genotoxicity, and cytotoxicity. Moreover, few studies about metabolic and biochemical pathways and genes related to acephate action and biodegradation were scarce.

Hazard Assessment of the Effects of Acute and Chronic Exposure to Permethrin, Copper Hydroxide, Acephate, and Validamycin Nanopesticides on the Physiology of Drosophila: Novel Insights into the Cellular Internalization and Biological Effects

New insights into the interactions between nanopesticides and edible plants are required in order to elucidate their impacts on human health and agriculture. Nanopesticides include formulations consisting of organic/inorganic nanoparticles. Drosophila melanogaster has become a powerful model in genetic research thanks to its genetic similarity to mammals. This project mainly aimed to generate new evidence for the toxic/genotoxic properties of different nanopesticides (a nanoemulsion (permethrin nanopesticides, 20 ± 5 nm), an inorganic nanoparticle as an active ingredient (copper(II) hydroxide [Cu(OH)₂] nanopesticides, 15 ± 6 nm), a polymer-based nanopesticide (acephate nanopesticides, 55 ± 25 nm), and an inorganic nanoparticle associated with an organic active ingredient (validamycin nanopesticides, 1177 ± 220 nm)) and their microparticulate forms (i.e., permethrin, copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO₄·5H₂O), acephate, and validamycin) widely used against agricultural pests, while also showing the merits of using Drosophila—a non-target in vivo eukaryotic model organism—in nanogenotoxicology studies. Significant biological effects were noted at the highest doses of permethrin (0.06 and 0.1 mM), permethrin nanopesticides (1 and 2.5 mM), CuSO₄·5H₂O (1 and 5 mM), acephate and acephate nanopesticides (1 and 5 mM, respectively), and validamycin and validamycin nanopesticides (1 and 2.5 mM, respectively). The results demonstrating the toxic/genotoxic potential of these nanopesticides through their impact on cellular internalization and gene expression represent significant contributions to future nanogenotoxicology studies.

Effects of Insecticides and Microbiological Contaminants on Apis mellifera Health

Over the past two decades, there has been an alarming decline in the number of honey bee colonies. This phenomenon is called Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD). Bee products play a significant role in human life and have a huge impact on agriculture, therefore bees are an economically important species. Honey has found its healing application in various sectors of human life, as well as other bee products such as royal jelly, propolis, and bee pollen. There are many putative factors of CCD, such as air pollution, GMO, viruses, or predators (such as wasps and hornets). It is, however, believed that pesticides and microorganisms play a huge role in the mass extinction of bee colonies. Insecticides are chemicals that are dangerous to both humans and the environment. They can cause enormous damage to bees' nervous system and permanently weaken their immune system, making them vulnerable to other factors. Some of the insecticides that negatively affect bees are, for example, neonicotinoids, coumaphos, and chlorpyrifos. Microorganisms can cause various diseases in bees, weakening the health of the colony and often resulting in its extinction. Infection with microorganisms may result in the need to dispose of the entire hive to prevent the spread of pathogens to other hives. Many aspects of the impact of pesticides and microorganisms on bees are still unclear. The need to deepen knowledge in this matter is crucial, bearing in mind how important these animals are for human life.

Fabrication of an Effective Avermectin Nanoemulsion Using a Cleavable Succinic Ester Emulsifier

In this study, a new emulsifier precursor was prepared via esterification of avermectin with succinic anhydride. The chemical structure of the product was confirmed to be monosubstituted avermectin. After neutralization with triethanolamine, it exhibited adequate emulsification ability for avermectin. Avermectin was then encapsulated in nanoparticles in the nanoemulsion with a high drug loading up to 60 wt % and high stability. The nanoemulsion of nanoparticles that serves as a carrier of avermectin shows highly efficient pesticide characteristics, including low surface tension, high affinity to leaves, and improved photostability. In the presence of esterase or under strongly basic conditions, the ester bonds of the emulsifier can be hydrolyzed, and the encapsulated avermectin molecules can be released in an accelerated manner. The nanoemulsion exhibited improved insecticidal effect compared with commercial emulsifiable concentrate, which was attributed to the cleavage of ester bonds of the emulsifier by esterase in vivo.

Preparation and characterization of emamectin benzoate nanoformulations based on colloidal delivery systems and use in controlling Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)

Colloidal delivery systems have been widely used as carriers for controlled delivery of pesticides to improve the efficacy and photostability of natural and semi-synthetic pesticides. In this study, we have synthesized emamectin benzoate nanoformulations (EB + NFs) depending on polymeric nanocapsules (PNC) and two types of the nanosilica, mesoporous nanosilica (MCM-48) and silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SNPs) as carriers for the emamectin benzoate (EB). The fabricated nanoformulations were characterized by using X-ray diffraction analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, particle size, zeta potential, morphology, absolute recovery (AR), entrapment efficiency (EE), UV stability and release kinetics. The obtained results showed that the carriers had a remarkable loading ability for EB and improved the EB photostability. The EE% of nanoformulations were 92.84%, 87.45% and 71.19% for emamectin benzoate polymeric nanocapsules (EB + PNC), emamectin benzoate SNPs (EB + SNPs) and emamectin benzoate MCM-48 (EB + MCM-48) respectively. The insecticidal activity of EB + NFs against Plutella xylostella showed that the EB + SNPs was more effective than other EB + NFs and EB alone. The LC₅₀ values were 0.18, 4.03, 8.49 and 11.06 mg L⁻¹ for EB + SNPs, EB + MCM-48, EB + PNC and EB respectively. The obtained results suggest the colloidal delivery systems that used in this study could improve the efficacy and photostability for EB, and they are able to overcome the disadvantage of the natural and semi-synthetic pesticides such as environmental sensitivity and to increase the efficacy of pesticides, which eventually leads to reduce the dosage of pesticides needed, reducing the number of applications required in comparison to conventional formulations.

Colloidal delivery systems have been widely used as carriers for controlled delivery of pesticides to improve the efficacy and photostability of natural and semi-synthetic pesticides.

Novel Polymeric Nanoformulation of Mancozeb – An Eco-Friendly Nanomaterial

The best alternative to conventional pesticides is nanopesticide. Severe pollution is caused due to the rapid degradation and uncontrolled, unconstrained utilization of conventional pesticides. Nanopesticides can provide better penetration through the plants and control different diseases. Nanoformulation of pesticide certainly protects the premature degradation in the environment and delivers high impact on target species. Less environmental contamination and safe handling are the advantages of nanopesticides. In this paper, we reported the novel nano-mancozeb pesticide for plant disease control. Our study provides a novel nanoformulation of mancozeb pesticide by using Polyethylene glycol as a capping agent. Nanoparticles of the encapsulated complex were characterized by UV-Vis, Dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning electron microscope (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Biological evaluation was conducted against Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus. The developed method is useful to farmers and it is an eco-friendly pesticide formulation.

Nanoencapsulation, Nano-guard for Pesticides: A New Window for Safe Application

The application of nanotechnology in pesticide delivery is relatively new and in the early stages of development. This technology aims to reduce the indiscriminate use of conventional pesticides and ensure their safe application. This critical review investigated the potential of nanotechnology, especially the nanoencapsulation process for pesticide delivery. In-depth investigation of various nanoencapsulation materials and techniques, efficacy of application, and current research trends are also presented. The focus of ongoing research was on the development of a nanoencapsulated pesticide formulation that has slow releasing properties with enhanced solubility, permeability, and stability. These properties are mainly achieved through either protecting the encapsulated active ingredients from premature degradation or increasing their pest control efficacy for a longer period. Nanoencapsulated pesticide formulation is able to reduce the dosage of pesticides and human exposure to them, which is environmentally friendly for crop protection. However, lack of knowledge of the mechanism of synthesis and lack of a cost-benefit analysis of nanoencapsulation materials hindered their application in pesticide delivery. Further investigation of these materials' behavior and their ultimate fate in the environment will help the establishment of a regulatory framework for their commercialization. The review provides fundamental and critical information for researchers and engineers in the field of nanotechnology and especially the use of nanoencapsulation techniques to deliver pesticides.

Nanopesticide research: current trends and future priorities

The rapid developments in nanopesticide research over the last two years have motivated a number of international organizations to consider potential issues relating to the use of nanotechnology for crop protection. This analysis of the latest research trends provides a useful basis for identifying research gaps and future priorities. Polymer-based formulations have received the greatest attention over the last two years, followed by formulations containing inorganic nanoparticles (e.g., silica, titanium dioxide) and nanoemulsions. Investigations have addressed the lack of information on the efficacy of nanopesticides and a number of products have been demonstrated to have greater efficacy than their commercial counterparts. However, the mechanisms involved remain largely unknown and further research is required before any generalizations can be made. There is now increased motivation to develop nanopesticides that are less harmful to the environment than conventional formulations, and future investigations will need to assess whether any promising products developed are able to compete with existing formulations, in terms of both cost and performance. Investigations into the environmental fate of nanopesticides remain scarce, and the current state of knowledge does not appear to be sufficient for a reliable assessment to be made of their associated benefits and risks. A great deal of research will therefore be required over the coming years, and will need to include (i) the development of experimental protocols to generate reliable fate properties, (ii) investigations into the bioavailability and durability of nanopesticides, and (iii) evaluation of current environmental risk assessment approaches, and their refinement where appropriate.

Entomotoxicity and biosafety assessment of PEGylated acephate nanoparticles: a biologically safe alternative to neurotoxic pesticides

This is a report of an experimental study on a nanoencapsulation of the organophosphate acephate. Acephate was encapsulated in polyethylene glycol, using a simple, easy-to-replicate method that required no special equipment or conditions. The nanoencapsulation (nanoacephate) was characterized and its bioefficacy as compared to the regular commercial acephate was tested. The biosafety of the new compound was also tested on a murine model. Our new nanoencapsulation scored over the regular variety on all counts. It was found to successfully incorporate the active pesticidal component, acephate and this compound retained greater functional integrity over time as a nanoencapsulation. It was significantly more efficacious than the regular variety. It was biosafe when tested on murine model. We have reason to believe that this nanoencapsulation would allow the use of an organophosphate in a more targeted manner, thereby making it a cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative to the regular variety in use now.