Free-weight resistance exercise on pulse wave reflection and arterial stiffness between sexes in young, resistance-trained adults

Effects of resistance exercise alone or with caffeine on hemodynamics, autonomic modulation and arterial stiffness in resistance-trained women

AIM

Both an acute bout of resistance exercise (RE) and caffeine consumption can significantly alter hemodynamics, autonomic modulation, and arterial stiffness, which may correlate with adverse cardiovascular events. However, effects of an acute bout of RE and caffeine are unclear in resistance-trained women.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of an acute bout of RE with repetitions to failure on squat and bench press, with or without caffeine, on performance, resting and recovery measures of hemodynamics, autonomic modulation, as well as arterial stiffness in resistance-trained women.

METHODS

Eleven women participated in a double-blind, placebo controlled cross-over design in which they consumed caffeine (4 mg/kg) or placebo at least 72 h apart. Sixty minutes following ingestion, participants performed two sets of 10 repetitions followed by a third set to failure on squat and bench press. Hemodynamics, autonomic modulation, and arterial stiffness were measured at rest, 60 min post-ingestion, and three minutes and 10 min following RE.

RESULTS

Data demonstrated caffeine has no additive effects on performance, hemodynamics, autonomic modulation, or arterial stiffness (p > 0.05) before or following an acute bout of RE in resistance-trained women compared to a placebo.

CONCLUSIONS

Resistance-trained women may not observe any alteration to RE performance on the squat and bench press in terms of repetitions to failure following caffeine ingestion. In addition, the data from the present study suggests that there may also not be any further negative effects on the cardiovasculature if caffeine is consumed prior to the RE bout.

Acute effects of high-intensity resistance training on central blood pressure parameters of elderly hypertensive women: a crossover clinical trial

OBJECTIVE

Assess the acute effects of a high-intensity resistance training session on central blood pressure (CBP) parameters of elderly hypertensive women.

METHODS

Forty physically active hypertensive women were included in resistance training and control protocols. Resistance training exercises were bench press, leg press and lat pull-down. The resistance training protocol consisted of three sets of 10 repetitions to volitional failure with 90 s of rest between sets. No exercise was performed in the control protocol. CBP parameters were measured in four moments: before (PRE), immediately after (T0), 30 min (T30) and 60 min (T60) following both protocols.

RESULTS

Resistance training significantly increased central SBP (cSBP) 107.4 ± 16.3 vs. 117.5 ± 16.7), augmentation index ((24.9 ± 12.7 vs. 33.1 ± 12.0), pulse wave velocity (PWV 9.7 ± 1.0 vs. 10.3 ± 1.1), peripheral pulse pressure (pPP 48.5 ± 11.7 vs. 58.9 ± 13.1), central pulse pressure (cPP 38.3 ± 11.6 vs. 46.5 ± 13.1) and amplified pulse pressure (ampPP 10.2 ± 4.2 vs. 12.4 ± 5.6) immediately after exercises. The comparison between groups showed higher values of cSBP (117.5 ± 16.7 vs. 106.3 ± 14.6), augmentation index (20.9 ± 11.0 vs. 33.1 ± 12.0), pPP (46.6 ± 11.0 vs. 58.9 ± 13.1) and cPP (36 ± 10.2 vs. 46.5 ± 13.1) at T0. After 30 min, all variables returned to the baseline values.

CONCLUSION

High-intensity resistance training session increased CBP parameters immediately after exercises, but those changes were not sustained after 30 min.

Effect of Exercise on Arterial Stiffness in Healthy Young, Middle-Aged and Older Women: A Systematic Review

Arterial stiffness, an age-dependent phenomenon, is improved with exercise, which in turn may prevent cardiovascular diseases in women. However, there is a lack of consolidated information on the impact of exercise on arterial stiffness among healthy women. The aim of this review was to (i) analyse the effect of exercise on arterial stiffness in healthy young, middle-aged, and older women, and (ii) recommend types, intensity, and frequency for each age group. Database searches on PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Scopus were conducted using PRISMA guidelines until September 2022. The keywords were: exercise, women/female, and arterial stiffness. The inclusion criteria were: healthy women, supervised exercise, and arterial stiffness measures. Study quality and bias were assessed using the PEDro scale. Fifty-one papers were classified into young (n = 15), middle-aged (n = 14), and older (n = 22) women. Improvements in arterial stiffness were observed among: young women (Pulse Wave Velocity, PWV: 4.9-6.6 m/s), following an 8-week high-intensity aerobic (3 days/week) or hypoxic high-intensity interval training; middle-aged women (PWV: 5.1-7.9 m/s), aerobic exercise with moderate intensity or stretching exercise at "moderate to heavy" (Borg Scale), 20-30 s per site, 10 s of rest interval for 30 min; and for older women (PWV: 7.9-15.6 m/s), resistance training at light intensity, aerobic exercise at any intensity, or a combination of the two exercises. This review shows that arterial stiffness increases with age in healthy women and has an inverse relationship with exercise intensity. Therefore, when prescribing exercise to improve arterial stiffness, age and arterial stiffness measures should be accounted for.

Acute Effects of Wearing Different Surgical Face Masks during High-Intensity, Short-Rest Resistance Exercise on Cardiorespiratory and Pulmonary Function and Perceptual Responses in Weightlifters

This study investigated the effect of wearing a typical surgical mask (SM) or a three-dimensional (3D) SM (3DSM) during whole-body, high-intensity, short-rest resistance exercise on cardiorespiratory, respiratory, and perceptual comfort responses in weightlifters. Twenty elite weightlifters (6 women and 14 men; age = 24.1 ± 4.9 years; height: 167.45 ± 7.60 cm; body mass = 76.48 ± 19.86 kg) who participated in this study performed 3 resistance exercise sessions in a randomized order: (1) without a mask (NM), (2) while wearing a typical SM, and (3) while wearing a 3DSM. Resistance exercise consisted of a descending pyramid scheme starting at 10 repetitions, with a decrease of one repetition per set for the back squat, bench press, and deadlift, as fast as possible at 75% of the one-repetition maximum. Cardiorespiratory and pulmonary function and comfort were measured. Across all conditions, effective postexercise hypotension (PEH) was noted in terms of decreased systolic blood pressure (−4.64%), diastolic BP (−5.36%), mean arterial pressure (−5.02%), and ankle–brachial index (−6.84%). However, the heart rate (40.34%) and rate of pressure product (33.60%) increased, and no effects on pulmonary function were observed in the three conditions. The participants reported higher breathing resistance and tightness when wearing a typical SM than when wearing a 3DSM or no mask. Therefore, both wearing and not wearing a face mask during whole-body, high-intensity, short-rest resistance exercise promoted PEH and exerted no detrimental effect on pulmonary function. Coaches, trainers, and athletes should consider wearing a 3DSM during resistance exercise.

Hemodynamic response and pulse wave analysis after upper- and lower-body resistance exercise with and without blood flow restriction

Resistance exercise (RE) has been shown to elevate hemodynamics and pulse wave reflection. However, the effects of acute RE with blood flow restriction (BFR) on hemodynamics and pulse wave reflection are unclear. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the differences between upper- and lower-body RE with and without BFR on hemodynamics and pulse wave reflection. Twenty-three young resistance-trained individuals volunteered for the study. Hemodynamics and pulse wave reflection were assessed at rest, 10, 25, 40, and 55 min after either upper- or lower-body with or without BFR. The upper-body RE (URE) consisted of the latissimus dorsi pulldown and chest press; the lower-body RE (LRE) consisted of knee extension and knee flexion. The BFR condition consisted of four sets of 30, 15, 15, and 15 repetitions at 30% 1-repetition maximum (1RM) while the without BFR condition consisted of four sets of 8 repetitions at 70% 1RM. Heart rate, rate pressure product, and subendocardial viability ratio significantly (p < 0.05) increased after all exercises. Brachial and aortic systolic blood pressure (BP) significantly (p < 0.05) elevated after LRE while brachial and aortic diastolic BP significantly (p < 0.05) reduced after URE. Augmentation pressure, augmentation index (AIx), AIx normalized at 75 bpm, and wasted left ventricular pressure energy significantly (p < 0.05) increased after URE while transit time of reflected wave significantly (p < 0.05) decreased after LRE. URE places greater stress on pulse wave reflection while LRE results in greater responses in BP. Regardless of URE or LRE, the cardiovascular responses between BFR and without BFR are similar.HIGHLIGHTS High-load resistance exercise and low-load resistance exercise with blood flow restriction may produce similar cardiovascular responses.Upper-body resistance exercise generates greater changes on pulse wave reflections while lower-body resistance exercise induces greater elevations in systolic blood pressure.

Effect of an Acute Resistance Training Bout and Long-Term Resistance Training Program on Arterial Stiffness: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Resistance training (RT) and exercise is useful for preventing cardiovascular disease, systolic hypertension and stroke, which are associated with the stiffening of the larger central arterial system. The aim of this systematic review was to (a) understand the changes in arterial stiffness (AS) in various parts of the body measurement after acute RT bout and long-term RT, and (b) to determine the impact of exercise intensity on these changes in healthy individuals. A systematic computerized search was performed according to the PRISMA in PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar with final selection of 23 studies. An acute RT bout led to a temporary increase in pulse wave velocity (PWV) regardless of the measurement method or intensity. A long-term RT at above an 80% repetition maximum (RM) have an ambiguous effect on PWV. A low-intensity RT or whole-body vibration training program decreased carotid-femoral PWV and brachial-ankle PWV (d = 1.02) to between 0.7 ± 1.4 ms-1 (p < 0.05) and 1.3 ± 1.07 ms-1 (p < 0.05) and improved other cardiac functions. A long-term RT of moderate (60-80% 1RM) or low intensity (<60% one-repetition maximum (1RM)) can decrease AS. Low and moderate intensity RT is beneficial to reduce high AS to prevent cardiovascular diseases.

Does the level of effort during resistance training influence arterial stiffness and blood pressure in young healthy adults?

BACKGROUND: The cardiovascular response to resistance training is influenced by different variables such as intensity and volume. OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of resistance training sessions differing in level of effort on blood pressure and arterial stiffness. METHODS: Thirty-two men performed 3 sets at 75% of 1-RM during the bench press and squat exercises to failure (n= 16; high-effort group), or performing half of the maximum possible number of repetitions per set (n= 16; low-effort group). Blood pressure (systolic blood pressure [SBP], diastolic blood pressure [DBP], and mean arterial pressure [MAP]) and arterial stiffness (pulse wave velocity [PWV]) were measured before training (Pre), immediately after training (Post 1), 5 minutes after training (Post 2), and 24 hours after training (Post 3). RESULTS: A main effect of time (p⩽ 0.012) was observed for all variables due to higher values at Post 1 compared to Post 2 (effect size [ES] range: 0.34–1.37) and Post 3 (ES range: 0.37–0.92). When compared to Pre, increases higher than a ES of 0.20 were observed for the high-effort group compared to the low-effort group at all time points. CONCLUSIONS: Training to failure should be discouraged to avoid acute increases in blood pressure and arterial stiffness.

The Efficacy of Stretching Exercises on Arterial Stiffness in Middle-Aged and Older Adults: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized and Non-Randomized Controlled Trials

Background: Aerobic exercise is known to reduce arterial stiffness; however, high-intensity resistance exercise is associated with increased arterial stiffness. Stretching exercises are another exercise modality, and their effect on arterial stiffness remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine whether stretching exercises reduce arterial stiffness in middle-aged and older adults, performing the first meta-analysis of currently available studies. Methods: We searched the literature for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and non-RCTs published up to January 2020 describing middle-aged and older adults who participated in a stretching intervention vs. controls without exercise training. The primary and secondary outcomes were changes in arterial stiffness and vascular endothelial function and hemodynamic status. Pooled mean differences (MDs) and standard MDs (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) between the intervention and control groups were calculated using a random effects model. Results: We identified 69 trials and, after an assessment of relevance, eight trials, including a combined total of 213 subjects, were analyzed. Muscle stretching exercises were shown to significantly reduce arterial stiffness and improve vascular endothelial function (SMD: −1.00, 95% CI: −1.57 to −0.44, p = 0.0004; SMD: 1.15, 95% CI: 0.26 to 2.03, p = 0.01, respectively). Resting heart rate (HR) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) decreased significantly after stretching exercise intervention (MD: −0.95 beats/min, 95% CI: −1.67 to −0.23 beats/min, p = 0.009; MD: −2.72 mm Hg, 95% CI: −4.01 to −1.43 mm Hg, p < 0.0001, respectively) Conclusions: Our analyses suggest that stretching exercises reduce arterial stiffness, HR, and DBP, and improve vascular endothelial function in middle-aged and older adults.

Free-weight versus weight machine resistance exercise on pulse wave reflection and aortic stiffness in resistance-trained individuals

The purpose of this study was to compare the vascular responses to acute free-weight (FW) resistance exercise (RE) versus weight machines (WM). Thirty-two resistance-trained individuals participated in this study. Both modalities involved performing acute RE and a control. Blood pressure and measures of pulse wave reflection were assessed using pulse wave analysis. Aortic stiffness was assessed using carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cf-PWV). A repeated measures analysis of variance was used to determine the effects of modality (FW and WM) and condition (acute RE and control) across time (rest and 10-20 min after exercise) on measures of pulse wave reflection and aortic stiffness. Significance was set a priori at p ≤ 0.05. There were no modality by condition by time interactions for any variable, such that the FW and WM modalities responded similarly across time after acute RE (p > 0.05). There were significant (p ≤ 0.05) increases in heart rate, aortic systolic blood pressure, aortic pulse pressure, augmentation index normalized at 75bpm, and decreases in subendocardial viability ratio (SEVR) after acute RE, compared to rest. There was also a significant (p ≤ 0.05) increase in cf-PWV after acute RE, compared to rest. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that acute free-weight and weight-machine RE are associated with transient increases in measures of pulse wave reflection and aortic stiffness, with reductions in myocardial perfusion. These data demonstrate that both modalities result in significant stress on the myocardium during recovery, while simultaneously increasing pressure on the aorta for at least 10-20 min.

New insights into arterial stiffening: does sex matter?

This review discusses sexual dimorphism in arterial stiffening, disease pathology interactions, and the influence of sex on mechanisms and pathways. Arterial stiffness predicts cardiovascular mortality independent of blood pressure. Patients with increased arterial stiffness have a 48% higher risk for developing cardiovascular disease. Like other cardiovascular pathologies, arterial stiffness is sexually dimorphic. Young women have lower stiffness than aged-matched men, but this sex difference reverses during normal aging. Estrogen therapy does not attenuate progressive stiffening in postmenopausal women, indicating that currently prescribed drugs do not confer protection. Although remodeling of large arteries is a protective adaptation to higher wall stress, arterial stiffening increases afterload to the left ventricle and transmits higher pulsatile pressure to smaller arteries and target organs. Moreover, an increase in aortic stiffness may precede or exacerbate hypertension, particularly during aging. Additional studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms by which females are protected from arterial stiffness to provide insight into its mechanisms and, ultimately, therapeutic targets for treating this pathology.

Menstrual phase and the vascular response to acute resistance exercise

INTRODUCTION

Aerobic exercise has a favorable effect on systemic vascular function, reducing both central (large elastic artery) and peripheral (smaller muscular artery) stiffness. The effects of resistance exercise (RE) on arterial stiffness are more complex. Acute RE increases central artery stiffness while decreasing peripheral stiffness. To date, the majority of studies have been performed in predominantly male participants.

PURPOSE

To examine the effect of acute RE on central and peripheral arterial stiffnesses in women, a secondary purpose was to explore the influence of cyclic changes in estrogen status across the menstrual cycle on the arterial response to acute RE.

METHODS

18 healthy women [28 ± 7 years, body mass index (BMI) 22.6 ± 2.9 kg/m²] completed an acute RE bout during the early follicular and the early luteal phase of their menstrual cycle. Salivary 17β-Estradiol concentration was measured during each phase, using a passive drool technique. Pulse-wave velocity (PWV) was obtained from the carotid-femoral and carotid-radial pulse sites to measure central and peripheral stiffness, respectively, using applanation tonometry. PWV was measured at rest, immediately, 10, 20, and 30 min post-RE.

RESULTS

17β-Estradiol concentration was significantly lower in the early follicular vs. the early luteal phase of the menstrual cycle (1.78 ± 0.51 vs. 2.40 ± 0.26 pg/ml, p = 0.01). Central PWV significantly increased (p < 0.05) and peripheral PWV significantly decreased (p < 0.05) post-RE in both the early follicular and early luteal phases. No phase-by-time interaction was detected for either vascular segment (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Women experience increases in central arterial stiffness and reductions in peripheral arterial stiffness following acute RE. Menstrual cycle phase may not influence changes in arterial stiffness in response to acute RE.