Psychophysiological effects of audiovisual stimuli during cycle exercise

Acute effects of outdoor versus indoor exercise: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Exercise and nature exposure are independently recognised for their positive relationship with health, but their combined effects are not fully understood. The present review summarises the evidence that compares physiological and perceptual differences of a single bout of exercise performed outdoors versus indoors. Nine databases were searched for articles published before March 2021 which utilised controlled designs to assess at least one physiological outcome during or after a single acute bout of outdoor exercise. When appropriate, quantitative analyses were completed. Quality of articles was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Assessment Tool. The findings of 38 articles (Total N = 1168) were examined. Participants were primarily healthy. Summarised outcomes included objective exercise intensity, perceived exertion, performance, neuroendocrine and metabolic responses, cardiovascular responses, thermoregulation, enjoyment, intention for future exercise, and perceptions of the environment. Outdoor environments increased enjoyment (N = 234, K = 10, g = 1.24, 95% CI = [0.59, 1.89], p < 0.001). Findings for remaining outcomes were non-significant or inconclusive and challenging to interpret due to high risk of bias. Overall, outdoor exercise appears to feel more enjoyable than indoor exercise when matched for intensity, with equivocal physiological benefit.

The effect of Virtual Reality Cycling with Music on simple obesity in college students: evidence from a randomized controlled trial in China

Background

Simple obesity has become an increasingly prevalent health concern among college students. Existing research indicates that traditional exercise methods may not sufficiently engage this population, particularly those facing barriers to regular physical activity. Thus, this study investigated how combining VR cycling with music influenced fat reduction in this population.

Method

This study recruited 78 Chinese college students with simple obesity (BMI ≥ 28 kg/m2) and randomly assigned them to either an experimental group (VR cycling combined with music, n = 41) or a control group (traditional cycling, n = 37). Both groups engaged in 12 weeks of cycling training, three times a week, for 45 min per session. Key physiological indicators, such as weight, BMI, waist circumference, and hip circumference, were measured at baseline, mid-intervention, and post-intervention.

Results

The VR cycling with music group exhibited significant improvements in key physiological metrics compared to the control group. Notable changes included a 4.1% reduction in weight, a 2.8% decrease in BMI, and a 2.8% reduction in waist circumference. Hip circumference also decreased by 2.5%, while the waist-to-hip ratio dropped by 0.016 units. Furthermore, the intervention led to a 7.2% increase in vital capacity, with all outcomes showing statistical significance (p<0.01). The experimental group also reported higher levels of enjoyment and engagement throughout the intervention period.

Conclusion

Participants in the experimental group experienced significant reductions in weight, BMI, and both waist and hip circumferences, as well as a notable improvement in vital capacity. The study highlights that combining virtual reality cycling with music resulted in more substantial weight loss and fat reduction in obese college students, compared to traditional cycling methods.

The effects of combining visual-auditory stimuli with exercise on short-term affect improvement: a randomized controlled trial

ABSTRAC T

Prior research has explored the effects of engaging with real or virtual natural landscapes and listening to music during aerobic exercise on short-term affect, however, the specific differences in the improvement of short-term affect by different combinations of Virtual Reality (VR) and music rhythm require further investigation. The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of various combinations of VR and music on short-term mood, thereby providing a reference for future research on public fitness. This study recruited 132 valid participants (mean age 24.0 ± 0.9 years), with a gender distribution of 68 males and 64 females. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four groups: Visual-Music (V-M), Music-Visual (M-V), Visual-only (V), and Music-only (M). The exercise mode was 15 min of aerobic power cycling with 2 min of low-intensity power cycling intervals in the middle. After the exercise, the participants were asked to sit and then performed either a VR intervention or a music intervention for 15 min. The collected indicators included blood pressure, positive/negative affect, and heart rate variability indicators (RMSSD, SDNN, LF/HF). Data analysis included descriptive statistics, repeated measures ANOVA, and multifactor ANOVA. The effect of different VR and Music combined with exercise interventions on the improvement of short-term affect was analyzed based on the effect size (ɳp2) and combined with the significance p-value. Intra-group results showed that DBP, positive and negative affect, SDNN, RMSSD indicators in V-M group were significant differences (p < 0.05), while SBP, positive affect, negative affect, SDNN, RMSSD, LF/HF indicators in M-V group were significant differences (p < 0.05). Only SDNN and RMSSD indicators in M group had significant differences (p < 0.05), and only SBP and RMSSD indicators in V group had significant differences (p < 0.05). The results between groups showed that only SDNN and LH/HF groups had a significant difference (p < 0.05), other indicators had a trend of improvement or positive promotion to a certain extent, but the statistical difference was not significant (p > 0.05). Aerobic exercise with consistent intensity and the combined visual-auditory interventions (M-V and V-M) significantly improved blood pressure, and the short-term affect of physiological responses (LF/HF, SDNN, RMSSD), along with subjective affect measures, compared to other groups. These findings suggest that incorporating VR and music with exercise can effectively enhance short-term affect, recommending an integrated approach to aerobic exercise and relaxation through music and visual exposure to natural environments.

Can acute exercise be more pleasant? Using audiovisual stimuli: A meta-analysis

This meta-analytic study aimed to examine the effects of audiovisual stimuli on affective responses during and after exercise and their moderators. A total of 296 effect sizes (Hedge's g) were extracted from 46 independent studies covering 1292 participants. Meta-analysis was performed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Version 3.3, and potential moderating variables were analysed using univariate meta-regression models. Audiovisual stimuli increased affective valence during (g = 0.793, 95% CI [0.666, 0.920]) and after exercise (g = 0.792, 95% CI [0.567, 1.016]), and arousal during (g = 0.920, 95% CI [0.742 1.097]) and after exercise (g = 0.666, 95% CI [0.390, 0.962]). There may be publication bias in the meta-analysis, but the main findings are still valid. The type of audiovisual stimuli (audio-video > audio or video), exercise habits (active > not reported), and exercise intensities (self-selected > imposed) moderated the effects. In conclusion, the application of audiovisual stimuli during exercise can elicit positive affective responses. These results provide a viable intervention strategy for exercise and health practitioners to reduce the number of physically inactive individuals and improve exercise compliance and adherence.

Exploring the Impact of Mental Fatigue and Emotional Suppression on the Performance of High-Intensity Endurance Exercise

This study investigated the extent to which mental fatigue and emotional suppression affected exercise endurance. Twelve participants performed cycling endurance tests at 80% of their peak power up to the point of exhaustion. Two experimental conditions (mental fatigue [MF] and emotion suppression conditions [ES]) and a control condition (CO) were administered. Participants responded to psychological measures throughout the exercise trials. Both MF and ES conditions hindered exercise performance relative to the CO, and there was no statistically significant difference between the negative effects of both MF and ES conditions. Of note, however, higher levels of subjective fatigue were reported in MF, prior to commencing the exercise test. High cognitive loads that induce MF and/or engaging in ES may reduce high intensity endurance exercise performance among young adults, but further research with greater numbers of participants is needed to replicate and extend these findings.

Psychophysiological effects of rhythmic music combined with aerobic exercise in college students with minimal depressive symptoms

Mental health problems are common during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood. Previous studies reported that rhythmic music plus aerobic exercise can have a beneficial effect on emotional state. We examined whether the beneficial effect differed between aerobic exercise interventions with or without rhythmic music. A sample of 94 college students who either had no depressive symptoms (n ​= ​47) or minimal depressive symptoms (n ​= ​47) underwent 30-min interventions in a randomized and counterbalanced order: rest, rhythmic music, aerobic exercise and aerobic exercise plus rhythmic music. Response time and accuracy of selective attention to positive and negative images were recorded using the spatial cueing paradigm. Participants' heart rate during all conditions and perceived exertion after each condition were measured to clarify physiological and perceptual responses, respectively. The results revealed that a multimodal intervention combining aerobic exercise and rhythmic music had a significant facilitatory effect on attentional bias to positive emotional cues in minimal depressive participants (t ​= ​-2.336, p ​= ​0.024), including less perceived exertion and higher heart rate after/during the intervention process. The single-modality intervention of aerobic exercise had significant positive effects for individuals with no depressive symptoms (t ​= ​-2.510, p ​= ​0.016). The multimodal intervention was more effective than the single-modality intervention for individuals with minimal depressive symptoms, but the single-modality aerobic exercise intervention was more effective for individuals with no depressive symptoms, providing new evidence for the specificity of the intervention effect for people with different degrees of depressive symptoms.

The influence of core affect on cyclo-ergometer endurance performance: Effects on performance outcomes and perceived exertion

BACKGROUND

Core affect is defined as the most general affective construct consciously accessible that is experienced constantly. It can be experienced as free-floating (mood) or related to prototypical emotional episodes. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of pleasant and unpleasant core affect on cyclo-ergometer endurance performance. Specifically, we considered the influence of pleasant and unpleasant core affect on performance outcomes (i.e., time to task completion) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE; Borg Scale, category ratio-10) collected during the task.

METHODS

Thirty-one participants aged 20-28 years were recruited. Core affect was randomly elicited by 2 sets of pleasant and unpleasant pictures chosen from the international affective picture system. Pictures were displayed to participants during a cyclo-ergometer performance in 2 days in a counterbalanced order. RPE was collected every minute to detect volunteers' exhaustion.

RESULTS

The study sample was split into 2 groups. Group 1 comprised participants who performed better with pleasant core affect, whereas Group 2 included participants who performed better with unpleasant core affect. Mixed between-within subjects analysis of variance revealed a significant 2 (group) × 2 (condition) × 5 (isotime) interaction (p = 0.002, η_p² = 0.158). Post hoc comparisons showed that participants who obtained better performance with pleasant core affect (pleasant pictures; Group 1) reported lower RPE values at 75% of time to exhaustion in a pleasant core affect condition compared to an unpleasant core affect condition. On the other hand, participants who obtained better performance with unpleasant core affect (unpleasant pictures; Group 2) reported lower RPE values at 75% and 100% of time to exhaustion in an unpleasant core affect condition.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest differential effects of pleasant and unpleasant core affect on performance. Moreover, core affect was found to influence perceived exertion and performance according to participants' preferences for pleasant or unpleasant core affect.

Ready Exerciser One: Effects of music and virtual reality on cycle ergometer exercise

OBJECTIVES

Physical inactivity remains a major global health concern, and researchers have been encouraged to explore the role of technology in the promotion of physical activity. Technologies that deliver audio-visual stimuli are frequently applied in the exercise domain. However, there is a paucity of research that examines the efficacy of modern virtual reality (VR) technology in this context. We investigated the effects of VR and music on affective, perceptual, enjoyment, and cardiac responses to aerobic-type exercise.

DESIGN

A fully counterbalanced, within-subjects design was employed.

METHODS

A convenience sample of recreationally active adult volunteers (N = 24) completed a 12-min protocol during which they exercised under music, VR, VR-with-music, and control conditions.

RESULTS

Analyses indicated a Condition × Time interaction for affective valence and perceived activation. Moreover, a main effect of condition emerged for state attention and perceived enjoyment. The VR and VR-with-music conditions elicited the most positive affective valence, highest levels of perceived activation, greatest number of dissociative thoughts, and most exercise enjoyment. Differences between these two conditions were negligible across the breadth of dependent variables.

CONCLUSIONS

The present findings illustrate the efficacy of modern VR technology in the exercise context, applied both with and without musical accompaniment. Additional research is required to assess the degree to which the findings are replicable among sedentary or ageing segments of the population. Given the emerging support pertaining to a positive relationship between affective responses and exercise adherence, VR technology should be considered as a means by which to promote an enjoyable exercise experience.

Effects of mindfulness on psychological and psychophysiological responses during self-paced walking

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of an audio-guided mindfulness (MF) single session on psychological and psychophysiological responses during an outdoor walking task. Twenty-four participants (12 females and 12 males; M_age  = 23.6, SD = 3.9 years) were required to walk 200 m at a pace of their choosing. Two experimental conditions (mindfulness meditation and mindlessness [ML] meditation) and a control condition (CO) were administered. Electrical activity in the brain was measured by the use of a portable electroencephalography (EEG) system during walking. Fast Fourier Transform was used to decompose the EEG samples into theta (5-7 Hz), alpha (8-14 Hz), and beta (15-29 Hz) frequencies. Brain connectivity analysis between frontal and temporo-parietal electrode sites was conducted to explore functional interactions through the use of spectral coherence. Affective and perceptual responses were measured by the use of single-item scales and questionnaires. The present findings indicate that MF was sufficiently potent to reallocate attention toward task-related thoughts, downregulate perceived activation, and enhance affective responses to a greater degree than the other two conditions. Conversely, ML was sufficient to increase the use of dissociative thoughts, make participants less aware of their physical sensations and emotions, induce a more negative affective state, and upregulate perceived activation to a greater extent than MF and CO. The brain mechanisms that underlie the effects of MF on exercise appear to be associated with the enhanced inter-hemispheric connectivity of high-frequency waves between right frontal and left temporo-parietal areas of the cortex.

Effects of audiovisual stimuli on psychological and psychophysiological responses during exercise in adults with obesity

The present experiment sought to further understanding of the effects of personalised audiovisual stimuli on psychological and psychophysiological responses during exercise in adults with obesity. Twenty-four participants (M_age = 28.3, SD = 5.5 years; M_BMI = 32.2, SD = 2.4) engaged in self-paced exercises on a recumbent cycle ergometer and three conditions (sensory stimulation [ST], sensory deprivation [DE], and control [CO]) were administered. Perceptual (attentional focus and perceived exertion), affective (affective state and perceived activation), and psychophysiological (heart rate variability) parameters were monitored throughout the exercise bouts. A one-way repeated measures analysis of variance was used to compare self-reported and psychophysiological variables (main and interaction effects [5 Timepoints × 3 Conditions]). The results indicate that ST increased the use of dissociative thoughts throughout the exercise session (η_p² = .19), ameliorated fatigue-related symptoms (η_p² = .15) and elicited more positive affective responses (η_p² = .12) than CO and DE. Accordingly, personally-compiled videos are highly effective in ameliorating exertional responses and enhancing affective valence during self-paced exercise in adults with obesity. Audiovisual stimuli could be used during the most critical periods of the exercise regimen (e.g., first training sessions) when individuals with obesity are more likely to focus on fatigue-related sensations.

Cerebral effects of music during isometric exercise: An fMRI study

A block-design experiment was conducted using fMRI to examine the brain regions that activate during the execution of an isometric handgrip exercise performed at light-to-moderate-intensity in the presence of music. Nineteen healthy adults (7 women and 12 men; M_age = 24.2, SD = 4.9 years) were exposed to an experimental condition (music [MU]) and a no-music control condition (CO) in a randomized order within a single session. Each condition lasted for 10 min and participants were required to execute 30 exercise trials (i.e., 1 trial = 10 s exercise + 10 s rest). Attention allocation, exertional responses, and affective changes were assessed immediately after each condition. The BOLD response was compared between conditions to identify the combined effects of music and exercise on neural activity. The findings indicate that music reallocated attention toward task-unrelated thoughts (d = 0.52) and upregulated affective arousal (d = 0.72) to a greater degree when compared to a no-music condition. The activity of the left inferior frontal gyrus (lIFG) also increased when participants executed the motor task in the presence of music (F = 24.65), and a significant negative correlation was identified between lIFG activity and perceived exertion for MU (limb discomfort: r = -0.54; overall exertion: r = -0.62). The authors hypothesize that the lIFG activates in response to motor tasks that are executed in the presence of environmental sensory stimuli. Activation of this region might also moderate processing of interoceptive signals - a neurophysiological mechanism responsible for reducing exercise consciousness and ameliorating fatigue-related symptoms.