1
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Verwey WB. C-SMB 2.0: Integrating over 25 years of motor sequencing research with the Discrete Sequence Production task. Psychon Bull Rev 2024; 31:931-978. [PMID: 37848660 PMCID: PMC11192694 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-023-02377-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023]
Abstract
An exhaustive review is reported of over 25 years of research with the Discrete Sequence Production (DSP) task as reported in well over 100 articles. In line with the increasing call for theory development, this culminates into proposing the second version of the Cognitive framework of Sequential Motor Behavior (C-SMB 2.0), which brings together known models from cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and motor learning. This processing framework accounts for the many different behavioral results obtained with the DSP task and unveils important properties of the cognitive system. C-SMB 2.0 assumes that a versatile central processor (CP) develops multimodal, central-symbolic representations of short motor segments by repeatedly storing the elements of these segments in short-term memory (STM). Independently, the repeated processing by modality-specific perceptual and motor processors (PPs and MPs) and by the CP when executing sequences gradually associates successively used representations at each processing level. The high dependency of these representations on active context information allows for the rapid serial activation of the sequence elements as well as for the executive control of tasks as a whole. Speculations are eventually offered as to how the various cognitive processes could plausibly find their neural underpinnings within the intricate networks of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willem B Verwey
- Department of Learning, Data-Analytics and Technology, Section Cognition, Data and Education, Faculty of Behavioral, Management and Social sciences, University of Twente, PO Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, the Netherlands.
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2
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Dahm SF, Hyna H, Krause D. Imagine to automatize: automatization of stimulus-response coupling after action imagery practice in implicit sequence learning. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2023; 87:2259-2274. [PMID: 36871080 PMCID: PMC10457413 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-023-01797-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
Action imagery practice (AIP) describes the repetitive imagination of an action to improve subsequent action execution. Because AIP and action execution practice (AEP) draw on partly similar motor mechanisms, it was assumed that AIP may lead to motor automatization, which is observable in a reduction of dual-task costs after AEP. To investigate automatization in AIP, we compared dual-task and single-task performance in practice and random sequences in pretests and posttests. All participants practiced serial reactions to visual stimuli in ten single-task practice sessions. An AIP group imagined the reactions. An AEP group and a control practice group executed the reactions. Practice followed a sequential sequence in AIP and AEP but was random in control practice. In dual-task test conditions, tones were counted that appeared in addition to the visual stimuli. RTs decreased from pretest to posttest in both practice and random sequences in all groups indicating general sequence-unspecific learning. Further, RTs decreased to a greater extent in the practice sequence than in the random sequence after AIP and AEP, indicating sequence-specific learning. Dual-task costs-the difference between RTs after tone and no tone events-were reduced independent from the performed sequence in all groups indicating sequence-unspecific automatization. It is concluded that the stimulus-response coupling can be automatized by both, AEP and AIP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan F Dahm
- Department of Psychology, Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
- UMIT Tirol-Private University for Health Sciences and Health Technology, Hall in Tyrol, Austria.
| | - Henri Hyna
- Department of Exercise and Health, Paderborn University, Paderborn, Germany
| | - Daniel Krause
- Department of Exercise and Health, Paderborn University, Paderborn, Germany
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3
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Conessa A, Debarnot U, Siegler I, Boutin A. Sleep-related motor skill consolidation and generalizability after physical practice, motor imagery, and action observation. iScience 2023; 26:107314. [PMID: 37520714 PMCID: PMC10374463 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Sleep benefits the consolidation of motor skills learned by physical practice, mainly through periodic thalamocortical sleep spindle activity. However, motor skills can be learned without overt movement through motor imagery or action observation. Here, we investigated whether sleep spindle activity also supports the consolidation of non-physically learned movements. Forty-five electroencephalographic sleep recordings were collected during a daytime nap after motor sequence learning by physical practice, motor imagery, or action observation. Our findings reveal that a temporal cluster-based organization of sleep spindles underlies motor memory consolidation in all groups, albeit with distinct behavioral outcomes. A daytime nap offers an early sleep window promoting the retention of motor skills learned by physical practice and motor imagery, and its generalizability toward the inter-manual transfer of skill after action observation. Findings may further have practical impacts with the development of non-physical rehabilitation interventions for patients having to remaster skills following peripherical or brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Conessa
- Université Paris-Saclay, CIAMS, 91405 Orsay, France
- Université d’Orléans, CIAMS, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Ursula Debarnot
- University Lyon, UCBL-Lyon 1, Inter-University Laboratory of Human Movement Biology, EA7424, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
| | - Isabelle Siegler
- Université Paris-Saclay, CIAMS, 91405 Orsay, France
- Université d’Orléans, CIAMS, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Arnaud Boutin
- Université Paris-Saclay, CIAMS, 91405 Orsay, France
- Université d’Orléans, CIAMS, 45067 Orléans, France
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4
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Sequence representations after action-imagery practice of one-finger movements are effector-independent. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2023; 87:210-225. [PMID: 35113208 PMCID: PMC9873765 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-022-01645-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Action-imagery practice (AIP) is often less effective than action-execution practice (AEP). We investigated whether this is due to a different time course of learning of different types of sequence representations in AIP and AEP. Participants learned to sequentially move with one finger to ten targets, which were visible the whole time. All six sessions started with a test. In the first four sessions, participants performed AIP, AEP, or control-practice (CP). Tests involved the practice sequence, a mirror sequence, and a different sequence, which were performed both with the practice hand and the other (transfer) hand. In AIP and AEP, movement times (MTs) in both hands were significantly shorter in the practice sequence than in the other sequences, indicating sequence-specific learning. In the transfer hand, this indicates effector-independent visual-spatial representations. The time course of the acquisition of effector-independent visual-spatial representations did not significantly differ between AEP and AIP. In AEP (but not in AIP), MTs in the practice sequence were significantly shorter in the practice hand than in the transfer hand, indicating effector-dependent representations. In conclusion, effector-dependent representations were not acquired after extensive AIP, which may be due to the lack of actual feedback. Therefore, AIP may replace AEP to acquire effector-independent visual-spatial representations, but not to acquire effector-dependent representations.
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Panzer S, Haab T, Massing M, Pfeifer C, Shea CH. Dyad training protocols and the development of a motor sequence representation. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2019; 201:102947. [PMID: 31722259 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2019.102947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the experiment was to determine the extent to which observation and the inter-trial dialogue in a dyad training protocol enhance the development of a movement sequence representation. The task was to reproduce a 1300ms spatial-temporal pattern of elbow extension/flexion movements. An inter-manual transfer design with a retention test and two effector transfer tests was used. The mirror transfer test required the same motor pattern of homologous muscle activation and a sequence of joint angles as experienced during the acquisition phase, and the non-mirror transfer test required the same visual-spatial pattern as practiced during acquisition. Participants (N=40) were randomly assigned to one of four groups (50 practice acquisition trials): a dyad training group where two participants alternated between physical and observational practice and permitting an inter-trial dialogue, a dyad training group where two participants alternated between physical practice and permitting a dialogue without observation, a dyad training group where two participants alternated between physical and observational practice without a dialogue, and an individual practice control group where one participant learned the movement sequence. The practice duration was for all participants identical. The results indicated that participants involved in the dyad training protocols with either observation and/or the inter-trial dialogue developed a motor representation of the movement sequence.
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6
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Bolton DAE, Buick AR, Carroll TJ, Carson RG. Interlimb transfer and generalisation of learning in the context of persistent failure to accomplish a visuomotor task. Exp Brain Res 2019; 237:1077-1092. [PMID: 30758515 PMCID: PMC6430762 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-019-05484-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Transfer, in which capability acquired in one situation influences performance in another is considered, along with retention, as demonstrative of effectual learning. In this regard, interlimb transfer of functional capacity has commanded particular attention as a means of gauging the generalisation of acquired capability. Both theoretical treatments and prior empirical studies suggest that the successful accomplishment of a physical training regime is required to bring about generalised changes that extend to the untrained limb. In the present study, we pose the following question: Does interlimb transfer occur if and only if the training movements are executed? We report findings from JG-an individual recruited to a larger scale trial, who presented with (unilateral) deficits of motor control. We examined whether changes in the performance of the untrained right limb arose following practice undertaken by the impaired left limb, wherein the majority of JG's attempts to execute the training task were unsuccessful. Comparison was made with a group of "control" participants drawn from the main trial, who did not practice the task. For JG, substantial gains in the performance of the untrained limb (registered 3 days, 10 days and 1 year following training) indicated that effective learning had occurred. Learning was, however, expressed principally when the unimpaired (i.e. untrained) limb was utilised to perform the task. When the impaired limb was used, marked deficiencies in movement execution remained prominent throughout.
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Affiliation(s)
- D A E Bolton
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, USA
- School of Psychology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
| | - A R Buick
- School of Psychology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
| | - T J Carroll
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - R G Carson
- School of Psychology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK.
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
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7
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Ghamari A, Sohrabi M, Kakhki AS. Effects of Physical and Observational Practice on Intermanual Transfer. Adv Cogn Psychol 2019; 15:21-29. [PMID: 32509042 PMCID: PMC7262674 DOI: 10.5709/acp-0253-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Some studies have shown that different coordinate systems in the coding of movement sequences develop during observational and physical practice. According to Newell's (Newell, 1986) constraintsled approach, such contradictions could possibly depend on task characteristics. Accordingly, in the present study, two experiments were designed using a five-segment sequence timing task, in which the instructions on how to perform the sequence were different. The task in the first experiment comprised an alternating shift of fast and slow segments, whereas the second experiment involved an incremental procedure from slow to fast. In these experiments, the intermanual transfer of absolute and relative timing through observational and physical practice was examined. Transfer conditions were such that they required the same motor commands (mirror transfer) or the same visual-spatial coordinates (non-mirror transfer) as those in the practice conditions. The first experiment showed that the transfer to the non-mirror condition for relative timing in the physical group was better than that to the mirror condition, while the transfer was similar for both conditions in the observational group, indicating a different pattern of transfer for relative timing. The relative timing transfer pattern in the second experiment was the same for both experimental groups, such that the physical and observational practice resulted in a similar transfer to both mirror and non-mirror conditions. In both experiments, observational and physical practice participants exhibited similar intramanual transfer of absolute timing under both transfer conditions. Thus, the task itself as a constraint was revealed to be an effective factor influencing the behavioral results derived from physical and observational practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amin Ghamari
- Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Mashhad, Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran
| | - Mehdi Sohrabi
- Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Mashhad, Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran
| | - Alireza Saberi Kakhki
- Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Mashhad, Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran
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8
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Massing M, Blandin Y, Panzer S. The influence of eye-movements on the development of a movement sequence representation during observational and physical practice. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2018; 182:1-8. [PMID: 29107928 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
An experiment was conducted to examine the development of a movement sequence representation and the role of eye-movements during observational and physical practice. The task was to reproduce a 1300ms spatial-temporal pattern of a sequence of elbow flexions and extensions. An inter-manual transfer design with a retention and two effector transfer tests (contralateral limb) was used. The mirror transfer test required the same pattern of homologous muscle activation and a sequence of joint angles as experienced during the acquisition phase, and the non-mirror transfer test required the same visual-spatial pattern as performed or observed during acquisition. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four groups differing in eye-movements (free to use their eyes vs. instruction to fixate) and the practice type (observational practice vs. physical practice). The results indicated that permitting to use eye-movements facilitates sequence learning. This advantage was found on both practice types. The results of the transfer tests indicated that participants of the physical practice group who were permitted to use their eyes demonstrated superior transfer performance in the mirror transfer test, while participants in the observational practice group demonstrated better performance on the non-mirror transfer test. These findings indicated that eye-movements enhanced the development of a visual-spatial representation during observational practice as well as a motor representation during physical practice.
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9
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Tang WC, Yang HY, Liu TY, Gao M, Xu G. Motion video-based quantitative analysis of the 'lifting-thrusting' method: a comparison between teachers and students of acupuncture. Acupunct Med 2017; 36:21-28. [PMID: 28844062 PMCID: PMC5865511 DOI: 10.1136/acupmed-2016-011348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare objective measures of needle manipulation between students and teachers of acupuncture using motion video analysis technology, to help support instructional acupuncture education. METHODS A total of 30 teachers and 60 students participated in this study. Acupuncture needles were inserted at LI11 and motion videos were recorded for three subtypes of 'lifting-thrusting' manipulation: (1) 'mild reinforcing-attenuating'; (2) 'reinforcing'; and (3) 'attenuating'. The videos were analysed using Simi Motion 3D software to acquire the movement parameters of four trace marks: 'thumb tip'; 'forefinger tip'; 'forefinger middle joint'; and 'forefinger base joint'. Differences between the two groups were compared using t-tests, X2 tests and/or rank-sum tests. RESULTS Changes in the near-end interphalangeal joint were positively associated with a range of movement along the X axis. Motion parameters for the thumb tip, the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joint of the forefinger and the X axis shaft swing near the end of the forefinger in the teacher group were higher than those in the student group. The teacher group featured smaller trough dispersion and smaller crest dispersion during 'reinforcing' and 'attenuating' manipulations, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The 'lifting-thrusting' manipulation could be simplified as a fixed-axis rotation using metacarpophalangeal joints in the thumb and forefinger as the shaft centre. Teachers opened at a larger angular variation for the PIP during the lifting and thrusting processes with better spatial control. Temporal control was similar between groups and therefore appears easier to grasp. Repetitive training might be helpful for improving athletic and spatial stability during needle manipulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Chao Tang
- School of Acupuncture-Moxibustion and Tuina, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hua-Yuan Yang
- School of Acupuncture-Moxibustion and Tuina, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Tang-Yi Liu
- School of Acupuncture-Moxibustion and Tuina, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ming Gao
- School of Acupuncture-Moxibustion and Tuina, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Gang Xu
- School of Acupuncture-Moxibustion and Tuina, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
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10
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Neville KM, Trempe M. Serial practice impairs motor skill consolidation. Exp Brain Res 2017; 235:2601-2613. [PMID: 28573308 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-017-4992-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent reports have revealed that motor skill learning is impaired if two skills are practiced one after the other, that is before the first skill has had the time to become consolidated. This suggests that motor skills should be practiced in isolation from one another to minimize interference. At the moment, little is known about the effect of practice schedules high in contextual interference on motor skill consolidation. In Experiment 1, we investigated whether a serial practice schedule impairs motor skill consolidation. Participants had to learn two distinct sequences of finger movements (A and B) under either a blocked practice schedule or a serial practice schedule before being retested the following day. A control group also practiced Sequence A only. Our results revealed that a blocked practice schedule led to no interference between the sequences, whereas a serial practice schedule impaired the consolidation of Sequence B. In Experiment 2, we investigated the origin of the interference caused by a serial practice schedule by replacing the physical practice of Sequence A with either the observation of a model performing Sequence A or by asking participants to produce random finger movements. Our results revealed that both tasks interfered with the consolidation of Sequence B. Thus, we suggest that a serial practice schedule impairs motor skill consolidation through a conflict in the brain networks involved in the acquisition of the cognitive representation of the sequence and its execution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin-Marie Neville
- Sports Studies program, Bishop's University, 2600 College St., Sherbrooke, QC, J1M 1Z7, Canada
| | - Maxime Trempe
- Sports Studies program, Bishop's University, 2600 College St., Sherbrooke, QC, J1M 1Z7, Canada.
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11
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Sumanapala DK, Fish LA, Jones AL, Cross ES. Have I grooved to this before? Discriminating practised and observed actions in a novel context. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2017; 175:42-49. [PMID: 28284106 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Revised: 01/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Learning a new motor skill typically requires converting actions observed from a third-person perspective into fluid motor commands executed from a first-person perspective. In the present study, we test the hypothesis that during motor learning, the ability to discriminate between actions that have been observed and actions that have been executed is associated with learning aptitude, as assessed by a general measure of physical performance. Using a multi-day dance-training paradigm with a group of dance-naïve participants, we investigated whether actions that had been regularly observed could be discriminated from similar actions that had been physically practised over the course of three days, or a further set of similar actions that remained untrained. Training gains and performance scores at test were correlated with participants' ability to discriminate between observed and practised actions, suggesting that an individual's ability to differentiate between visual versus visuomotor action encoding is associated with general motor learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dilini K Sumanapala
- Social Brain in Action Laboratory, School of Psychology, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2AS Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Laurel A Fish
- Social Brain in Action Laboratory, School of Psychology, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2AS Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Alex L Jones
- Social Brain in Action Laboratory, School of Psychology, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2AS Wales, United Kingdom; Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, SA1 8EN Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Emily S Cross
- Social Brain in Action Laboratory, School of Psychology, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, LL57 2AS Wales, United Kingdom.
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12
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Buchanan JJ, Park I. Observation and physical practice: different practice contexts lead to similar outcomes for the acquisition of kinematic information. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2015; 81:83-98. [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-015-0723-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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13
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A test of motor skill-specific action embodiment in ice-hockey players. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2014; 150:61-8. [PMID: 24818535 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Revised: 04/15/2014] [Accepted: 04/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
To further our understanding of the role of the motor system in comprehending action-related sentences, we compared action experts (athletes) to visual experts (fans) and novices when responding with an action-specific effector (either hand or foot). These conditions allowed inferences about the degree and specificity of embodiment in language comprehension. Ice hockey players, fans and novices made speeded judgments regarding the congruence between an auditorily presented sentence and a subsequently presented picture. Picture stimuli consisted of either hockey or everyday items. Half of these pictures 'matched' the action implied in the preceding sentence. Further, the action in these images involved either primarily the hand or the foot. For everyday items, action-matched items were responded to faster than action-mismatched items. However, only the players and fans showed the action-match effect for hockey items. There were no consistent effector-stimuli compatibility effects, nor skill-based interactions with compatibility, suggesting that the action-match effect was not based on motor ability per se, but rather a construction of the action based on knowledge or visual experience with the hockey related sentences.
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14
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Hodges NJ, Coppola T. What we think we learn from watching others: the moderating role of ability on perceptions of learning from observation. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2014; 79:609-20. [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-014-0588-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2014] [Accepted: 06/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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15
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Effector-independent motor sequence representations exist in extrinsic and intrinsic reference frames. J Neurosci 2014; 34:5054-64. [PMID: 24695723 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5363-13.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Many daily activities rely on the ability to produce meaningful sequences of movements. Motor sequences can be learned in an effector-specific fashion (such that benefits of training are restricted to the trained hand) or an effector-independent manner (meaning that learning also facilitates performance with the untrained hand). Effector-independent knowledge can be represented in extrinsic/world-centered or in intrinsic/body-centered coordinates. Here, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and multivoxel pattern analysis to determine the distribution of intrinsic and extrinsic finger sequence representations across the human neocortex. Participants practiced four sequences with one hand for 4 d, and then performed these sequences during fMRI with both left and right hand. Between hands, these sequences were equivalent in extrinsic or intrinsic space, or were unrelated. In dorsal premotor cortex (PMd), we found that sequence-specific activity patterns correlated higher for extrinsic than for unrelated pairs, providing evidence for an extrinsic sequence representation. In contrast, primary sensory and motor cortices showed effector-independent representations in intrinsic space, with considerable overlap of the two reference frames in caudal PMd. These results suggest that effector-independent representations exist not only in world-centered, but also in body-centered coordinates, and that PMd may be involved in transforming sequential knowledge between the two. Moreover, although effector-independent sequence representations were found bilaterally, they were stronger in the hemisphere contralateral to the trained hand. This indicates that intermanual transfer relies on motor memories that are laid down during training in both hemispheres, but preferentially draws upon sequential knowledge represented in the trained hemisphere.
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16
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Manipulating visual–motor experience to probe for observation-induced after-effects in adaptation learning. Exp Brain Res 2013; 232:789-802. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-013-3788-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2012] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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17
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Hayes SJ, Elliott D, Bennett SJ. Visual online control processes are acquired during observational practice. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2013; 143:298-302. [PMID: 23711485 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2012] [Revised: 04/12/2013] [Accepted: 04/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This experiment examined whether visual online control processes are coded during observational practice. Participants physically practised an aiming sequence while yoked participants either observed (observational practice) or did nothing (control). Two target sizes were used to vary the importance of visual online control processes. Constant error and variable error indicated that participants acquired the timing constraints through physical practice and observational practice. Kinematic data confirmed that the physical practice and observational practice groups executed similar movement control. Physical practice did result in a performance advantage, but only under large target conditions. These findings indicate that visual online control processes can be effectively acquired through observational practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spencer J Hayes
- Brain and Behaviour Laboratory, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.
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18
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Abrahamse EL, Ruitenberg MFL, de Kleine E, Verwey WB. Control of automated behavior: insights from the discrete sequence production task. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7:82. [PMID: 23515430 PMCID: PMC3601300 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2012] [Accepted: 03/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Work with the discrete sequence production (DSP) task has provided a substantial literature on discrete sequencing skill over the last decades. The purpose of the current article is to provide a comprehensive overview of this literature and of the theoretical progress that it has prompted. We start with a description of the DSP task and the phenomena that are typically observed with it. Then we propose a cognitive model, the dual processor model (DPM), which explains performance of (skilled) discrete key-press sequences. Key features of this model are the distinction between a cognitive processor and a motor system (i.e., motor buffer and motor processor), the interplay between these two processing systems, and the possibility to execute familiar sequences in two different execution modes. We further discuss how this model relates to several related sequence skill research paradigms and models, and we outline outstanding questions for future research throughout the paper. We conclude by sketching a tentative neural implementation of the DPM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elger L. Abrahamse
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of GhentGhent, Belgium
| | - Marit F. L. Ruitenberg
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Ergonomics, University of TwenteEnschede, Netherlands
| | - Elian de Kleine
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Ergonomics, University of TwenteEnschede, Netherlands
| | - Willem B. Verwey
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Ergonomics, University of TwenteEnschede, Netherlands
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Poh E, Riek S, Carroll TJ. Ipsilateral corticospinal responses to ballistic training are similar for various intensities and timings of TMS. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2013; 207:385-96. [PMID: 23082845 DOI: 10.1111/apha.12032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2012] [Revised: 04/06/2012] [Accepted: 10/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
AIM In previous studies, unilateral ballistic training either increased or decreased corticospinal excitability for the untrained opposite limb. The objective here was to investigate whether these discrepancies can be explained by methodological differences such as the intensity of stimulation assessing excitability or the timing of excitability testing after training. METHODS Motor evoked potentials (MEP) were elicited by stimulating the ipsilateral cortex at high intensity (70% MEPmax) and low intensity (20% MEPmax) at specific time-points after performance of 300 ballistic movements of the index finger. RESULTS Ballistic practice significantly facilitated MEP size for high-intensity stimuli, whereas responses to low-intensity stimulation were variable. MEP sizes at individual time-points were not significantly facilitated until 4 min after training, although there was no difference between early and late responses when grouped over multiple time-points. CONCLUSIONS The data indicate that previous discrepancies in ipsilateral responses to ballistic training cannot be attributed to specific procedures used to assess corticospinal excitability as there was no tendency towards depression of MEP amplitude at any point post-exercise for both testing intensities. This suggests that other experimental factors such as locus of attention or availability of visual feedback are more likely to account for the discrepancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. Poh
- Centre for Sensorimotor Neuroscience, School of Human Movement Studies; The University of Queensland; Brisbane; Qld; Australia
| | - S. Riek
- Centre for Sensorimotor Neuroscience, School of Human Movement Studies; The University of Queensland; Brisbane; Qld; Australia
| | - T. J. Carroll
- Centre for Sensorimotor Neuroscience, School of Human Movement Studies; The University of Queensland; Brisbane; Qld; Australia
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20
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Ellenbuerger T, Boutin A, Panzer S, Blandin Y, Fischer L, Schorer J, Shea CH. Observational training in visual half-fields and the coding of movement sequences. Hum Mov Sci 2012; 31:1436-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2012.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2011] [Revised: 06/14/2012] [Accepted: 06/23/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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21
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Dissociable contributions of motor-execution and action-observation to intramanual transfer. Exp Brain Res 2012; 221:459-66. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-012-3188-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2012] [Accepted: 07/05/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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22
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Larssen BC, Ong NT, Hodges NJ. Watch and learn: seeing is better than doing when acquiring consecutive motor tasks. PLoS One 2012; 7:e38938. [PMID: 22723909 PMCID: PMC3377687 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2011] [Accepted: 05/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
During motor adaptation learning, consecutive physical practice of two different tasks compromises the retention of the first. However, there is evidence that observational practice, while still effectively aiding acquisition, will not lead to interference and hence prove to be a better practice method. Observers and Actors practised in a clockwise (Task A) followed by a counterclockwise (Task B) visually rotated environment, and retention was immediately assessed. An Observe-all and Act-all group were compared to two groups who both physically practised Task A, but then only observed (ObsB) or did not see or practice Task B (NoB). The two observer groups and the NoB control group better retained Task A than Actors, although importantly only the observer groups learnt Task B. RT data and explicit awareness of the rotation suggested that the observers had acquired their respective tasks in a more strategic manner than Actor and Control groups. We conclude that observational practice benefits learning of multiple tasks more than physical practice due to the lack of updating of implicit, internal models for aiming in the former.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beverley C. Larssen
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Nicole T. Ong
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Nicola J. Hodges
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- * E-mail:
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23
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Brown EC, Brüne M. The role of prediction in social neuroscience. Front Hum Neurosci 2012; 6:147. [PMID: 22654749 PMCID: PMC3359591 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2012] [Accepted: 05/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Research has shown that the brain is constantly making predictions about future events. Theories of prediction in perception, action and learning suggest that the brain serves to reduce the discrepancies between expectation and actual experience, i.e., by reducing the prediction error. Forward models of action and perception propose the generation of a predictive internal representation of the expected sensory outcome, which is matched to the actual sensory feedback. Shared neural representations have been found when experiencing one's own and observing other's actions, rewards, errors, and emotions such as fear and pain. These general principles of the “predictive brain” are well established and have already begun to be applied to social aspects of cognition. The application and relevance of these predictive principles to social cognition are discussed in this article. Evidence is presented to argue that simple non-social cognitive processes can be extended to explain complex cognitive processes required for social interaction, with common neural activity seen for both social and non-social cognitions. A number of studies are included which demonstrate that bottom-up sensory input and top-down expectancies can be modulated by social information. The concept of competing social forward models and a partially distinct category of social prediction errors are introduced. The evolutionary implications of a “social predictive brain” are also mentioned, along with the implications on psychopathology. The review presents a number of testable hypotheses and novel comparisons that aim to stimulate further discussion and integration between currently disparate fields of research, with regard to computational models, behavioral and neurophysiological data. This promotes a relatively new platform for inquiry in social neuroscience with implications in social learning, theory of mind, empathy, the evolution of the social brain, and potential strategies for treating social cognitive deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elliot C Brown
- Research Department of Cognitive Neuropsychiatry and Preventative Medicine, LWL University Hospital Bochum Bochum, Germany
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24
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Ellenbuerger T, Boutin A, Blandin Y, Shea CH, Panzer S. Scheduling observational and physical practice: influence on the coding of simple motor sequences. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2012; 65:1260-73. [PMID: 22494362 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2011.654126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The main purpose of the present experiment was to determine the coordinate system used in the development of movement codes when observational and physical practice are scheduled across practice sessions. The task was to reproduce a 1,300-ms spatial-temporal pattern of elbow flexions and extensions. An intermanual transfer paradigm with a retention test and two effector (contralateral limb) transfer tests was used. The mirror effector transfer test required the same pattern of homologous muscle activation and sequence of limb joint angles as that performed or observed during practice, and the non-mirror effector transfer test required the same spatial pattern movements as that performed or observed. The test results following the first acquisition session replicated the findings of Gruetzmacher, Panzer, Blandin, and Shea (2011) . The results following the second acquisition session indicated a strong advantage for participants who received physical practice in both practice sessions or received observational practice followed by physical practice. This advantage was found on both the retention and the mirror transfer tests compared to the non-mirror transfer test. These results demonstrate that codes based in motor coordinates can be developed relatively quickly and effectively for a simple spatial-temporal movement sequence when participants are provided with physical practice or observation followed by physical practice, but physical practice followed by observational practice or observational practice alone limits the development of codes based in motor coordinates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Ellenbuerger
- IfADo-Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Dortmund, Germany
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25
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Ong NT, Larssen BC, Hodges NJ. In the absence of physical practice, observation and imagery do not result in updating of internal models for aiming. Exp Brain Res 2012; 218:9-19. [PMID: 22231560 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-011-2996-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2011] [Accepted: 12/29/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
The presence of after-effects in adaptation tasks implies that an existing internal model has been updated. Previously, we showed that although observers adapted to a visuomotor perturbation, they did not show after-effects. In this experiment, we tested 2 further observer groups and an actor group. Observers were now actively engaged in watching (encouraged through imagery and movement estimation), with one group physically practising for 25% of the trials (mixed). Participants estimated the hand movements that produced various cursor trajectories and/or their own hand movement from a preceding trial. These trials also allowed us to assess the development of explicit knowledge as a function of the three practice conditions. The pure observation group did not show after-effects, whereas the actor and mixed groups did. The pure observation group improved their ability to estimate hand movement of the video model. Although the actor and mixed groups improved in actual reaching accuracy, they did not improve in explicit estimation. The mixed group was more accurate in reaching during adaptation and showed larger after-effects than the actors. We suggest that observation encourages an explicit mode of learning, enabling performance benefits without corresponding changes to an internal model of the mapping between output and sensory input. However, some physical practice interspersed with observation can change the manner with which learning is achieved, encouraging implicit learning and the updating of an existing internal model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole T Ong
- School of Kinesiology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
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26
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Higuchi S, Holle H, Roberts N, Eickhoff S, Vogt S. Imitation and observational learning of hand actions: Prefrontal involvement and connectivity. Neuroimage 2012; 59:1668-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2011] [Revised: 09/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/12/2011] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
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27
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Hayes SJ, Andrew M, Elliott D, Roberts JW, Bennett SJ. Dissociable contributions of motor-execution and action-observation to intermanual transfer. Neurosci Lett 2012; 506:346-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.11.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2011] [Revised: 11/23/2011] [Accepted: 11/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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28
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Long- and short-term plastic modeling of action prediction abilities in volleyball. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2011; 76:542-60. [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-011-0383-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2011] [Accepted: 09/29/2011] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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29
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Effects of the model’s handedness and observer’s viewpoint on observational learning. Exp Brain Res 2011; 214:567-76. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-011-2856-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Accepted: 08/26/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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30
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Shea CH, Kovacs AJ, Panzer S. The coding and inter-manual transfer of movement sequences. Front Psychol 2011; 2:52. [PMID: 21716583 PMCID: PMC3110831 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2010] [Accepted: 03/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The manuscript reviews recent experiments that use inter-manual transfer and inter-manual practice paradigms to determine the coordinate system (visual-spatial or motor) used in the coding of movement sequences during physical and observational practice. The results indicated that multi-element movement sequences are more effectively coded in visual-spatial coordinates even following extended practice, while very early in practice movement sequences with only a few movement elements and relatively short durations are coded in motor coordinates. Likewise, inter-manual practice of relatively simple movement sequences show benefits of right and left limb practice that involves the same motor coordinates while the opposite is true for more complex sequences. The results suggest that the coordinate system used to code the sequence information is linked to both the task characteristics and the control processes used to produce the sequence. These findings have the potential to greatly enhance our understanding of why in some conditions participants following practice with one limb or observation of one limb practice can effectively perform the task with the contralateral limb while in other (often similar) conditions cannot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles H Shea
- Human Performance Laboratories, Department of Health and Kinesiology, Texas A&M University College Station, TX, USA
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