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Bednarska K, Chowdhury R, Tobin JWD, Swain F, Keane C, Boyle S, Khanna R, Gandhi MK. Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphomas decoded. Br J Haematol 2024; 204:415-433. [PMID: 38155519 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.19255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated lymphomas cover a range of histological B- and T-cell non-Hodgkin and Hodgkin lymphoma subtypes. The role of EBV on B-cell malignant pathogenesis and its impact on the tumour microenvironment are intriguing but incompletely understood. Both the International Consensus Classification (ICC) and 5th Edition of the World Health Organization (WHO-HAEM5) proposals give prominence to the distinct clinical, prognostic, genetic and tumour microenvironmental features of EBV in lymphoproliferative disorders. There have been major advances in our biological understanding, in how to harness features of EBV and its host immune response for targeted therapy, and in using EBV as a method to monitor disease response. In this article, we showcase the latest developments and how they may be integrated to stimulate new and innovative approaches for further lines of investigation and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Bednarska
- Mater Research Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Rakin Chowdhury
- Frazer Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Haematology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Joshua W D Tobin
- Mater Research Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Haematology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Fiona Swain
- Frazer Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Haematology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Colm Keane
- Frazer Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Haematology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Stephen Boyle
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Rajiv Khanna
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Maher K Gandhi
- Mater Research Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Haematology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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2
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Li X, Wang F, Zhang X, Sun Q, Kuang E. Suppression of KSHV lytic replication and primary effusion lymphoma by selective RNF5 inhibition. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011103. [PMID: 36656913 PMCID: PMC9888681 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), a rare aggressive B-cell lymphoma in immunosuppressed patients, is etiologically associated with oncogenic γ-herpesvirus infection. Chemotherapy is commonly used to treat PEL but usually results in poor prognosis and survival; thus, novel therapies and drug development are urgently needed for PEL treatment. Here, we demonstrated that inhibition of Ring finger protein 5 (RNF5), an ER-localized E3 ligase, suppresses multiple cellular pathways and lytic replication of Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) in PEL cells. RNF5 interacts with and induces Ephrin receptors A3 (EphA3) and EphA4 ubiquitination and degradation. RNF5 inhibition increases the levels of EphA3 and EphA4, thereby reducing ERK and Akt activation and KSHV lytic replication. RNF5 inhibition decreased PEL xenograft tumor growth and downregulated viral gene expression, cell cycle gene expression, and hedgehog signaling in xenograft tumors. Our study suggests that RNF5 plays the critical roles in KSHV lytic infection and tumorigenesis of primary effusion lymphoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojuan Li
- Institute of Human Virology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- College of Clinical Medicine, Hubei University of Chinese Medicine, Wuhan, China
| | - Fan Wang
- Institute of Human Virology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaolin Zhang
- Institute of Human Virology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qinqin Sun
- Institute of Human Virology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ersheng Kuang
- Institute of Human Virology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-Sen University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China
- * E-mail:
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Co-Infection of the Epstein-Barr Virus and the Kaposi Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus. Viruses 2022; 14:v14122709. [PMID: 36560713 PMCID: PMC9782805 DOI: 10.3390/v14122709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2022] Open
Abstract
The two human tumor viruses, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), have been mostly studied in isolation. Recent studies suggest that co-infection with both viruses as observed in one of their associated malignancies, namely primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), might also be required for KSHV persistence. In this review, we discuss how EBV and KSHV might support each other for persistence and lymphomagenesis. Moreover, we summarize what is known about their innate and adaptive immune control which both seem to be required to ensure asymptomatic persistent co-infection with these two human tumor viruses. A better understanding of this immune control might allow us to prepare for vaccination against EBV and KSHV in the future.
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Verdu-Bou M, Tapia G, Hernandez-Rodriguez A, Navarro JT. Clinical and Therapeutic Implications of Epstein-Barr Virus in HIV-Related Lymphomas. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:5534. [PMID: 34771697 PMCID: PMC8583310 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13215534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The incidence of lymphomas is increased in people living with HIV (PLWH). Aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHLs) are the most common and are considered an AIDS-defining cancer (ADC). Although Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) is not considered an ADC, its incidence is also increased in PLWH. Among all HIV-related lymphomas (HRL), the prevalence of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is high. It has been shown that EBV is involved in different lymphomagenic mechanisms mediated by some of its proteins, contributing to the development of different lymphoma subtypes. Additionally, cooperation between both HIV and EBV can lead to the proliferation of aberrant B-cells, thereby being an additional lymphomagenic mechanism in EBV-associated HRL. Despite the close relationship between EBV and HRL, the impact of EBV on clinical aspects has not been extensively studied. These lymphomas are treated with the same therapeutic regimens as the general population in combination with cART. Nevertheless, new therapeutic strategies targeting EBV are promising for these lymphomas. In this article, the different types of HRL are extensively reviewed, focusing on the influence of EBV on the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, and pathological characteristics of each lymphoma subtype. Moreover, novel therapies targeting EBV and future strategies to treat HRL harboring EBV are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Verdu-Bou
- Lymphoid Neoplasms Group, Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute, Can Ruti Campus, 08916 Badalona, Spain;
| | - Gustavo Tapia
- Department of Pathology, Germans Trias i Pujol Hospital, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08916 Badalona, Spain;
| | - Agueda Hernandez-Rodriguez
- Department of Microbiology, Germans Trias i Pujol Hospital, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08916 Badalona, Spain;
| | - Jose-Tomas Navarro
- Lymphoid Neoplasms Group, Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute, Can Ruti Campus, 08916 Badalona, Spain;
- Department of Hematology, Institut Català d’Oncologia-Germans Trias i Pujol Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain
- Department of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08916 Badalona, Spain
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The Role of Coinfections in the EBV-Host Broken Equilibrium. Viruses 2021; 13:v13071399. [PMID: 34372605 PMCID: PMC8310153 DOI: 10.3390/v13071399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is a well-adapted human virus, and its infection is exclusive to our species, generally beginning in the childhood and then persisting throughout the life of most of the affected adults. Although this infection generally remains asymptomatic, EBV can trigger life-threatening conditions under unclear circumstances. The EBV lifecycle is characterized by interactions with other viruses or bacteria, which increases the probability of awakening its pathobiont capacity. For instance, EBV infects B cells with the potential to alter the germinal center reaction (GCR)—an adaptive immune structure wherein mutagenic-driven processes take place. HIV- and Plasmodium falciparum-induced B cell hyperactivation also feeds the GCR. These agents, along with the B cell tropic KSHV, converge in the ontogeny of germinal center (GC) or post-GC lymphomas. EBV oral transmission facilitates interactions with local bacteria and HPV, thereby increasing the risk of periodontal diseases and head and neck carcinomas. It is less clear as to how EBV is localized in the stomach, but together with Helicobacter pylori, they are known to be responsible for gastric cancer. Perhaps this mechanism is reminiscent of the local inflammation that attracts different herpesviruses and enhances graft damage and chances of rejection in transplanted patients. In this review, we discussed the existing evidence suggestive of EBV possessing the potential to synergize or cooperate with these agents to trigger or worsen the disease.
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Animal Models for Gammaherpesvirus Infections: Recent Development in the Analysis of Virus-Induced Pathogenesis. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9020116. [PMID: 32059472 PMCID: PMC7167833 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9020116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is involved in the pathogenesis of various lymphomas and carcinomas, whereas Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) participates in the pathogenesis of endothelial sarcoma and lymphomas. EBV and KSHV are responsible for 120,000 and 44,000 annual new cases of cancer, respectively. Despite this clinical importance, no chemotherapies or vaccines have been developed for virus-specific treatment and prevention of these viruses. Humans are the only natural host for both EBV and KSHV, and only a limited species of laboratory animals are susceptible to their experimental infection; this strict host tropism has hampered the development of their animal models and thereby impeded the study of therapeutic and prophylactic strategies. To overcome this difficulty, three main approaches have been used to develop animal models for human gammaherpesvirus infections. The first is experimental infection of laboratory animals with EBV or KSHV. New-world non-human primates (NHPs) and rabbits have been mainly used in this approach. The second is experimental infection of laboratory animals with their own inherent gammaherpesviruses. NHPs and mice have been mainly used here. The third, a recent trend, employs experimental infection of EBV or KSHV or both to immunodeficient mice reconstituted with human immune system components (humanized mice). This review will discuss how these three approaches have been used to reproduce human clinical conditions associated with gammaherpesviruses and to analyze the mechanisms of their pathogenesis.
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Shannon-Lowe C, Rickinson A. The Global Landscape of EBV-Associated Tumors. Front Oncol 2019; 9:713. [PMID: 31448229 PMCID: PMC6691157 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.00713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a gamma-1 herpesvirus, is carried as a life-long asymptomatic infection by the great majority of individuals in all human populations. Yet this seemingly innocent virus is aetiologically linked to two pre-malignant lymphoproliferative diseases (LPDs) and up to nine distinct human tumors; collectively these have a huge global impact, being responsible for some 200,000 new cases of cancer arising worldwide each year. EBV replicates in oral epithelium but persists as a latent infection within the B cell system and several of its diseases are indeed of B cell origin; these include B-LPD of the immunocompromised, Hodgkin Lymphoma (HL), Burkitt Lymphoma (BL), Diffuse Large B cell Lymphoma (DLBCL) and two rarer tumors associated with profound immune impairment, plasmablastic lymphoma (PBL) and primary effusion lymphoma (PEL). Surprisingly, the virus is also linked to tumors arising in other cellular niches which, rather than being essential reservoirs of virus persistence in vivo, appear to represent rare cul-de-sacs of latent infection. These non-B cell tumors include LPDs and malignant lymphomas of T or NK cells, nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) and gastric carcinoma of epithelial origin, and leiomyosarcoma, a rare smooth muscle cell tumor of the immunocompromised. Here we describe the main characteristics of these tumors, their distinct epidemiologies, histological features and degrees of EBV association, then consider how their different patterns of EBV latency may reflect the alternative latency programmes through which the virus first colonizes and then persists in immunocompetent host. For each tumor, we discuss current understanding of EBV's role in the oncogenic process, the identity (where known) of host genetic and environmental factors predisposing tumor development, and the recent evidence from cancer genomics identifying somatic changes that either complement or in some cases replace the contribution of the virus. Thereafter we look for possible connections between the pathogenesis of these apparently different malignancies and point to new research areas where insights may be gained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Shannon-Lowe
- Institute for Immunology and Immunotherapy, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Alan Rickinson
- Institute for Immunology and Immunotherapy, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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Zheng J, Shi Y, Feng Z, Zheng Y, Li Z, Zhao Y, Wang Y. Oncogenic effects of exosomes in γ‐herpesvirus‐associated neoplasms. J Cell Physiol 2019; 234:19167-19179. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.28573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiayu Zheng
- Microbiology and Immunology Department, Basic Medical School Guangdong Medical University Dongguan Guangdong China
- The Second School of Clinical Medicine Guangdong Medical University Dongguan Guangdong China
| | - Yiwan Shi
- The Second School of Clinical Medicine Guangdong Medical University Dongguan Guangdong China
| | - Zhenyu Feng
- The Second School of Clinical Medicine Guangdong Medical University Dongguan Guangdong China
| | - Yilu Zheng
- The Second School of Clinical Medicine Guangdong Medical University Dongguan Guangdong China
| | - Zhanhao Li
- The Second School of Clinical Medicine Guangdong Medical University Dongguan Guangdong China
| | - Yi Zhao
- Microbiology and Immunology Department, Basic Medical School Guangdong Medical University Dongguan Guangdong China
| | - Yan Wang
- Microbiology and Immunology Department, Basic Medical School Guangdong Medical University Dongguan Guangdong China
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9
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Epstein-Barr virus enhances genome maintenance of Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:E11379-E11387. [PMID: 30429324 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1810128115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) is a B cell lymphoma that is always associated with Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and in many cases also with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV); however, the requirement for EBV coinfection is not clear. Here, we demonstrate that adding exogenous EBV to KSHV+ single-positive PEL leads to increased KSHV genome maintenance and KSHV latency-associated nuclear antigen (LANA) expression. To show that EBV was necessary for naturally coinfected PEL, we nucleofected KSHV+/EBV+ PEL cell lines with an EBV-specific CRISPR/Cas9 plasmid to delete EBV and observed a dramatic decrease in cell viability, KSHV genome copy number, and LANA expression. This phenotype was reversed by expressing Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA-1) in trans, even though EBNA-1 and LANA do not colocalize in infected cells. This work reveals that EBV EBNA-1 plays an essential role in the pathogenesis of PEL by increasing KSHV viral load and LANA expression.
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10
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Pan S, Yu T, Wang Y, Lu R, Wang H, Xie Y, Feng X. Identification of a Torque Teno Mini Virus (TTMV) in Hodgkin's Lymphoma Patients. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1680. [PMID: 30093892 PMCID: PMC6070622 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
At least 12% of human cancers are caused by virus infection. To understand whether other viruses are associated with human cancers, a viral metagenomics approach was used to analyze the composition of the viral communities of the serum of the patients with Hodgkin’s lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. In this report, a human anellovirus TTMV named TTMV-SH was discovered from three patients with HL. The complete genome of TTMV-SH is 2812nt in length. Phylogenetic analysis based on ORF1 indicated that TTMV-SH of the 11 isolates cluster with TTMV strain TLMV-CBD231 sharing only 60.3–62% sequence similarity, and the sequences divergence is 41.5–43.1%, which indicates that TTMV-SH is a novel species. The TTMV-SH prevalence in HL group, especially in nodular sclerosing Hodgkin’s lymphomas (NSHL), was significantly higher than in the healthy group implicated that the TTMV-SH may be associated with HL, especially NSHL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaokun Pan
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Stomatology & Shanghai Research Institute of Stomatology, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOH/MOE), Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Tian Yu
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Stomatology & Shanghai Research Institute of Stomatology, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanchun Wang
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Department of Medical Oncology, Shanghai Cancer Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Renquan Lu
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Department of Medical Oncology, Shanghai Cancer Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Huijie Wang
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Department of Medical Oncology, Shanghai Cancer Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Youhua Xie
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOH/MOE), Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiping Feng
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Stomatology & Shanghai Research Institute of Stomatology, Shanghai, China
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Hutchison T, Malu A, Yapindi L, Bergeson R, Peck K, Romeo M, Harrod C, Pope J, Smitherman L, Gwinn W, Ratner L, Yates C, Harrod R. The TP53-Induced Glycolysis and Apoptosis Regulator mediates cooperation between HTLV-1 p30 II and the retroviral oncoproteins Tax and HBZ and is highly expressed in an in vivo xenograft model of HTLV-1-induced lymphoma. Virology 2018; 520:39-58. [PMID: 29777913 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2018.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Revised: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The human T-cell leukemia virus type-1 (HTLV-1) is an oncoretrovirus that infects and transforms CD4+ T-cells and causes adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL) -an aggressive lymphoproliferative disease that is highly refractive to most anticancer therapies. The HTLV-1 proviral genome encodes several regulatory products within a conserved 3' nucleotide sequence, known as pX; however, it remains unclear how these factors might cooperate or dynamically interact in virus-infected cells. Here we demonstrate that the HTLV-1 latency-maintenance factor p30II induces the TP53-induced glycolysis and apoptosis regulator (TIGAR) and counters the oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, and cytotoxicity caused by the viral oncoproteins Tax and HBZ. The p30II protein cooperates with Tax and HBZ and enhances their oncogenic potential in colony transformation/foci-formation assays. Further, we have shown that TIGAR is highly expressed in HTLV-1-induced tumors associated with oncogene dysregulation and increased angiogenesis in an in vivo xenograft model of HTLV-1-induced T-cell lymphoma. These findings provide the first evidence that p30II likely collaborates as an ancillary factor for the major oncoproteins Tax and HBZ during retroviral carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetiana Hutchison
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Department of Biological Sciences, and The Dedman College Center for Drug Discovery, Design & Delivery, Southern Methodist University, 6501 Airline Drive, 334-DLS, Dallas, TX 75275-0376, United States
| | - Aditi Malu
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Department of Biological Sciences, and The Dedman College Center for Drug Discovery, Design & Delivery, Southern Methodist University, 6501 Airline Drive, 334-DLS, Dallas, TX 75275-0376, United States
| | - Laçin Yapindi
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Department of Biological Sciences, and The Dedman College Center for Drug Discovery, Design & Delivery, Southern Methodist University, 6501 Airline Drive, 334-DLS, Dallas, TX 75275-0376, United States
| | - Rachel Bergeson
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Department of Biological Sciences, and The Dedman College Center for Drug Discovery, Design & Delivery, Southern Methodist University, 6501 Airline Drive, 334-DLS, Dallas, TX 75275-0376, United States
| | - Kendra Peck
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Department of Biological Sciences, and The Dedman College Center for Drug Discovery, Design & Delivery, Southern Methodist University, 6501 Airline Drive, 334-DLS, Dallas, TX 75275-0376, United States
| | - Megan Romeo
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Department of Biological Sciences, and The Dedman College Center for Drug Discovery, Design & Delivery, Southern Methodist University, 6501 Airline Drive, 334-DLS, Dallas, TX 75275-0376, United States
| | - Carolyn Harrod
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Department of Biological Sciences, and The Dedman College Center for Drug Discovery, Design & Delivery, Southern Methodist University, 6501 Airline Drive, 334-DLS, Dallas, TX 75275-0376, United States
| | - Jordan Pope
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Department of Biological Sciences, and The Dedman College Center for Drug Discovery, Design & Delivery, Southern Methodist University, 6501 Airline Drive, 334-DLS, Dallas, TX 75275-0376, United States
| | - Louisa Smitherman
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Department of Biological Sciences, and The Dedman College Center for Drug Discovery, Design & Delivery, Southern Methodist University, 6501 Airline Drive, 334-DLS, Dallas, TX 75275-0376, United States
| | - Wesleigh Gwinn
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Department of Biological Sciences, and The Dedman College Center for Drug Discovery, Design & Delivery, Southern Methodist University, 6501 Airline Drive, 334-DLS, Dallas, TX 75275-0376, United States
| | - Lee Ratner
- Departments of Medicine and Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, United States
| | - Courtney Yates
- Laboratory Animal Resource Center, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX 75275, United States
| | - Robert Harrod
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Department of Biological Sciences, and The Dedman College Center for Drug Discovery, Design & Delivery, Southern Methodist University, 6501 Airline Drive, 334-DLS, Dallas, TX 75275-0376, United States.
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