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Popović K, Nikolić MA, Dražić B, Jovanović D, Tanasković S. Assessment of the Quality of Herbal Teas from Šabac, Serbia in Terms of the Content of Heavy Metals. Pharm Chem J 2022; 56:827-837. [PMID: 36193231 PMCID: PMC9520112 DOI: 10.1007/s11094-022-02716-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Chemical components of teas have received great interest because they are related to health. In this work, data on the determination of foreign matter, loss on drying/water content, total ash and ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid are presented. The content of seven heavy metals including Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Ni, Cd and Pb were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry in samples of several herbal teas: Matricariae flos, Thymi herba, Menthae piperitae folium, Betulae folium, Quercus cortex, Gentianae radix, Frangulae cortex, Althaeae radix, Uvae ursi folium and Glycyrrhizae radix collected from Šabac's market, Serbia. The sample preparation procedure involved dry digestion and dissolution of the ash in 6M HCl and then in 0.1 M HNO3. Herbal teas showed the concentration of heavy metals Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn and Ni in the range: 2.9 ± 0.1 - 22.2 ± 0.9 mg/kg, 118.5 ± 1.1 - 755.5 ± 2.5 mg/kg, 19.0 ± 5.8 - 561.0 ± 1.9 mg/kg, 6.5 ± 0.4 - 242.5 ± 1.4 mg/kg and 2.5 ± 0.1 - 10 ± 1.1 mg/kg, respectively. The level of copper in all samples was uniform. The highest content of Fe was in Thymi herba, while Mn and Zn were at maximum in Betulae folium. The levels of toxic heavy metals Cd and Pb were below the detection limit. The obtained values were compared with data available from literature. The herbal tea samples analyzed contained essential heavy metals (Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn) and probably essential in trace (Ni), and could obey the daily dietary requirements. Noncancer health risk assessment detected that the herbal teas of Betulae folium and Frangulae cortex can manifest some health risk to consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosana Popović
- Academy of Applied Studies Šabac, Department for Medical, Business and Technological Studies, Šabac, Serbia
| | | | - Branka Dražić
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 450, Belgrade, 11000 Serbia
| | - Dragoljub Jovanović
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, Bul. Oslobodjenja 18, Belgrade, 11000 Serbia
| | - Slađana Tanasković
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 450, Belgrade, 11000 Serbia
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Gaur VK, Sharma P, Gaur P, Varjani S, Ngo HH, Guo W, Chaturvedi P, Singhania RR. Sustainable mitigation of heavy metals from effluents: Toxicity and fate with recent technological advancements. Bioengineered 2021; 12:7297-7313. [PMID: 34569893 PMCID: PMC8806687 DOI: 10.1080/21655979.2021.1978616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Increase in anthropogenic activities due to rapid industrialization had caused an elevation in heavy metal contamination of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. These pollutants have detrimental effects on human and environmental health. The majority of these pollutants are carcinogenic, neurotoxic, and are very poisonous even at very low concentrations. Contamination caused by heavy metals has become a global concern for which the traditional treatment approaches lack in providing a cost-effective and eco-friendly solution. Therefore, the use of microorganisms and plants to reduce the free available heavy metal present in the environment has become the most acceptable method by researchers. Also, in microbial- and phyto-remediation the redox reaction shifts the valence which makes these metals less toxic. In addition to this, the use of biochar as a remediation tool has provided a sustainable solution that needs further investigations toward its implementation on a larger scale. Enzymes secreted by microbes and whole microbial cell are considered an eco-efficient biocatalyst for mitigation of heavy metals from contaminated sites. To the best of our knowledge there is very less literature available covering remediation of heavy metals aspect along with the sensors used for detection of heavy metals. Systematic management should be implemented to overcome the technical and practical limitations in the use of these bioremediation techniques. The knowledge gaps have been identified in terms of its limitation and possible future directions have been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Kumar Gaur
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus, Lucknow, India
| | - Poonam Sharma
- Department of Bioengineering, Integral University, Lucknow, India
| | - Prachi Gaur
- Department of Microbiology, Indian Institute of Management and Technology, Aligarh, India
| | - Sunita Varjani
- Paryavaran Bhavan, Gujarat Pollution Control Board, Gandhinagar, GujaratIndia
| | - Huu Hao Ngo
- Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental, Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW – Australia
| | - Wenshan Guo
- Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental, Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW – Australia
| | - Preeti Chaturvedi
- Aquatic Toxicology Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (Csir-iitr), LucknowUttar Pradesh, India
| | - Reeta Rani Singhania
- Department of Marine Environmental Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan
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Nath A, Chakraborty D, Das S. Assessment of lead and cadmium in fifty-four Indian herbal medicine: tribal and marketed varieties. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:4127-4136. [PMID: 31828704 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-07091-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to assess the toxic metal content in herbal medicines being used by Indian people. Trace elements, lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd), in fifty-four herbal medicines (marketed and tribal varieties) of India were estimated, and the potential health risks were characterized by estimating the tolerable daily intake (TDI) and the total hazard quotient (THQ) associated with their consumption. A total of 12% of the marketed varieties had Pb above WHO permissible limits of 10 mg Pb/kg. In tribal varieties, none of the samples exceeded this limit. In contrast, all the marketed varieties and 17% of the tribal varieties exceeded WHO limit of 0.3 mg Cd/kg. Consumption of ~ 0.01 kg of herbal medicine per day contributed almost 20-28% of TDI of Pb and Cd for marketed varieties and < 10% for tribal varieties. Although the consumption of the Indian herbal medicine, especially the tribal varieties, posed no immediate concern as the average THQ was less than 1, 24% of the marketed varieties had a higher metal burden and could pose threat on long-term use. Our findings advocate the use of tribal medicines for therapeutic purposes owing to a relatively lesser metal burden than the marketed varieties. However, for the marketed varieties, appropriate standardization in terms of effective quality control and consistency is needed to ensure the health of the consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arindam Nath
- Aquatic Toxicology and Remediation Laboratory, Department of Life Science and Bioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar, India
| | - Debika Chakraborty
- Aquatic Toxicology and Remediation Laboratory, Department of Life Science and Bioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar, India
| | - Suchismita Das
- Aquatic Toxicology and Remediation Laboratory, Department of Life Science and Bioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar, India.
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Son BC, Lee CK, Suh CH, Kim KH, Kim JH, Jeong SU, Kim DH, Ryu JY, Lee SW, Kim SJ, Kwon YM, Park YB. Blood lead concentration and exposure related factors in Korea from the National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) II (2012-2014). JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2019; 16:763-774. [PMID: 31613717 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2019.1668000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
This study evaluated lead concentrations in blood and related factors among the South Korean population based on data from the Korea National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) II (2012-2014) conducted by the National Institute of Environmental Research and the Ministry of Environment. Personal data were obtained from non-institutionalized civilian Korean individuals in an interview with trained community surveyors using a structured questionnaire (n = 6,455, aged 19 or older, mean age 49.7 years). The lead concentrations in whole blood were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) with a Zeeman-effect-based background corrector. The precision and accuracy of the analytical methods were verified by internal and external quality controls (G-EQUAS, Germany). Statistical analysis was performed using weighted KoNEHS II data separated by sex, and the lead concentration was expressed as a geometric mean (GM). Multiple linear regression was performed using the SPSS 23.0 software package (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The total GM of lead concentrations was 19.5 µg/L. Lead concentrations increased with age and were higher in males (22.8 µg/L) than in females (16.6 µg/L). Smokers and drinkers had higher concentrations than non-smokers and non-drinkers of both sexes. People who used herbal medications had higher concentrations than those who did not among females. People of both sexes living in rural areas had higher lead concentrations than those in urban areas. Lead concentrations also varied with educational level, total family income, the type of water regularly consumed, and occupation. The average lead concentration of the general adult population in Korea has rapidly decreased over time from 45.8 µg/L (1999) to 19.45 µg/L (2012-2014); however, it remains higher than that of the United States, Germany, and Canada. The factors significantly related to lead concentration in South Korea were age, sex, smoking and alcohol drinking status, herbal medication usage by females, residential area, drinking water at home, and occupation. These factors could be used to improve occupational and environmental hygiene among the Korean population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byung Chul Son
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Busan Paik Hospital & Institute of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Inje University, Busan, South Korea (the Republic of)
| | - Chae Kwan Lee
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Busan Paik Hospital & Institute of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Inje University, Busan, South Korea (the Republic of)
- Department of Convergence Biomedical Science, College of Medicine, Inje University, Busan, South Korea (the Republic of)
| | - Chun Hui Suh
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Busan Paik Hospital & Institute of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Inje University, Busan, South Korea (the Republic of)
| | - Kun Hyung Kim
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Busan Paik Hospital & Institute of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Inje University, Busan, South Korea (the Republic of)
| | - Jeong Ho Kim
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Busan Paik Hospital & Institute of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Inje University, Busan, South Korea (the Republic of)
| | - Seong Uook Jeong
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Busan Paik Hospital & Institute of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Inje University, Busan, South Korea (the Republic of)
| | - Dae Hwan Kim
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Inje University Haeundae Paik Hospital, Busan, South Korea (the Republic of)
| | - Ji Young Ryu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Inje University Haeundae Paik Hospital, Busan, South Korea (the Republic of)
| | - Soo-Woong Lee
- Department of Convergence Biomedical Science, College of Medicine, Inje University, Busan, South Korea (the Republic of)
- Innovative Therapeutics Research Institute, College of Medicine, Inje University, Busan, South Korea (the Republic of)
| | - Sue Jin Kim
- Environmental Health Research Division, National Institute of Environmental Research, Inchon, South Korea (the Republic of)
| | - Young Min Kwon
- Environmental Health Research Division, National Institute of Environmental Research, Inchon, South Korea (the Republic of)
| | - Yeong Beom Park
- Department of Food Processing and Bakery, Gangwon Provincial College, Gangnung, South Korea (the Republic of)
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Jeong SW, Lee CK, Suh CH, Kim KH, Son BC, Kim JH, Lee JT, Lee SW, Park YB, Lee JW, Yu SD, Moon CS, Kim DH, Lee SY. Blood lead concentration and related factors in Korea from the 2008 National Survey for Environmental Pollutants in the Human Body. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2014; 217:871-7. [PMID: 25043456 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2014.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2012] [Revised: 06/25/2014] [Accepted: 06/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
This study evaluated blood lead concentrations in the Korean general population and the correlation between various exposure sources using data from the 2008 Korea National Survey for Environmental Pollutants in the Human Body (National Institute of Environmental Research, Korea). The general and occupational characteristics were gathered from 5136 participants who were 20 years of age and older using a structured questionnaire. Blood lead concentrations were analyzed using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Statistical analysis was performed using multiple linear regressions of the log lead concentrations to the independent variables such as age, gender, smoke, herbal medication and drug consumption, drinking water, and living area. Geometric mean (GM) blood lead concentrations in Korean adults were 19.7 μg/l. The blood lead concentrations increased with age; the highest concentrations were found in the 50-69-year age group (p<0.001). Males were higher than in females (p<0.001). Current smokers and drinkers had higher concentrations than nonsmokers (p<0.001) and nondrinkers (p<0.001), respectively. People who took herbal medication and drug consumption were higher than those who did not (p<0.001). Education level was negatively associated with blood lead concentration (p<0.001). People living in or around industrial areas had elevated blood lead concentration (p<0.001). Family income was also negatively associated with lead concentration, but not significantly. For drinking water, the underground water (spring or well water) drinking group had higher concentrations than other types of water drinking groups, but not significantly (p=0.063). The blood lead concentrations by occupation were significant (p<0.034): the highest was in laborer and Agricultural-Fishery-Forestry and the lowest in office workers. In women, blood lead concentrations tended to decrease with increasing delivery times, but not significantly. The blood lead concentration (GM) of the general adult population in Korea has decreased over time from 45.8 μg/l (1999) to 19.7 μg/l (2008). Although it is still higher than in other countries such as the United States and Canada, it is rapidly decreasing. Gender, age, smoking and alcohol drinking status, herbal medication and drug consumption, education level, living area and occupation were significantly related to the blood lead concentrations in Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seong Wook Jeong
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, College of Medicine & Institute of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Inje University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Chae Kwan Lee
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, College of Medicine & Institute of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Inje University, Busan, Republic of Korea.
| | - Chun Hui Suh
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, College of Medicine & Institute of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Inje University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Kun Hyung Kim
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, College of Medicine & Institute of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Inje University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung Chul Son
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, College of Medicine & Institute of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Inje University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Ho Kim
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, College of Medicine & Institute of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Inje University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Tae Lee
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, College of Medicine & Institute of Environmental and Occupational Medicine, Inje University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Soo Woong Lee
- Department of Microbiology, Bio-Marker Research Center for Personalized Therapy, College of Medicine, Inje University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeong Beom Park
- Department of Food Processing and Bakery, Gangwon Provincial College, Gangnung 210-804, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Wha Lee
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Soonchunhyang University, Asan, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Do Yu
- Environmental Health Research Division, National Institute of Environmental Research, Inchon, Republic of Korea
| | - Chan Seok Moon
- Department of Industrial Health, Catholic University of Busan, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Hwan Kim
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Inje University Haeundae Paik Hospital, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Yoon Lee
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Inje University Haeundae Paik Hospital, Busan, Republic of Korea
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Khanam Z, Singh O, Singh R, Bhat IUH. Safed musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum): a review of its botany, ethnopharmacology and phytochemistry. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2013; 150:421-441. [PMID: 24045177 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2013.08.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Revised: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 08/31/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Safed musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum) is an eminent medicinal plant of India and considered as a 'white gold' or 'divya aushad' in Indian systems of medicine. In Ayurveda, Chlorophytum borivilianum belongs to the group of "Vajikaran Rasayana" corroborated to its rejuvenating, aphrodisiac, natural sex tonic properties and effective in alleviating sexual disorders. It is largely used as ethnic medicine by local healers of indigenous communities of India. MATERIALS AND METHODS A thorough bibliographic investigation was carried out by analyzing worldwide accepted scientific data base (Pub Med, SciFinder, Scopus and Web of Science), thesis, recognized books, non impact and non indexed journals. RESULTS Traditionally, Chlorophytum borivilianum is well known for treating male impotency in India. The multi therapeutic and nutritional importance of Chlorophytum borivilianum is attributed to the rich source of phytochemicals particularly saponins. Recently, Chlorophytum borivilianum has gained a well established domestic (Indian) and international market for being the herbal alternative of "Viagra" without any side effects. Under the trade name 'Nai Chetna', the state government of Gujarat, India, has launched a novel potency drug from Chlorophytum borivilianum. Modern pharmacological studies of Chlorophytum borivilianum have demonstrated a wide range of pharmacological activities, most importantly aphrodisiac, immunomodulatory and anticancer activities. CONCLUSION The increased commercial exploitation of Chlorophytum borivilianum and low productivity of this endangered plant has raised the concern over its conservation. It has been envisaged that efforts should be made to standardize, encourage and popularize the cultivation of Chlorophytum borivilianum as a commercial crop. The analysis of previous pharmacological investigations suggested lack of substantial scientific evidences in various studies and do not stand the test of critical assessment. Due to high economic value, Chlorophytum borivilianum has also encountered a problem of adulteration with closely resembling medicinally inferior species. The studies available on toxicity, safety and quality of Chlorophytum borivilianum are inadequate for providing information on commercial utilization. Thus, the present review summarizes comprehensive information on Chlorophytum borivilianum and possible scope for future research to fill the existing lacunae on its different aspects of the study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zakia Khanam
- Faculty of Agro Based Industry, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Campus Jeli, 17600 Kelantan, Malaysia.
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Annan K, Kojo AI, Cindy A, Samuel AN, Tunkumgnen BM. Profile of heavy metals in some medicinal plants from Ghana commonly used as components of herbal formulations. Pharmacognosy Res 2011; 2:41-4. [PMID: 21808538 PMCID: PMC3140128 DOI: 10.4103/0974-8490.60579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Revised: 12/16/2009] [Accepted: 03/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The levels of some heavy metals in 27 medicinal plant species from Ghana were studied in order to evaluate their health implications. These plant species, especially those used in the treatment of diseases such as hypertension, diabetes and asthma may require long term usage. The metals were copper, zinc, iron, manganese, nickel and cadmium. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (wet digestion) was used for the analyses, and content of metals per sample was expressed as percent µg/g. Daily total intake of these metals is discussed based on the recommended daily intake of the medicinal plants or their corresponding formulations. From the results of the study zinc, copper and cadmium were present in all the plant species examined. Manganese was present in all species except V. amygdalina. Iron was found in all except five species (82%), whilst nickel was (rather rare) detected in only eight (30%) of the plant species. Significant variations in metal content existed (P<0.05) among the medicinal plant species with respect to the heavy metals evaluated. The concentrations of copper, zinc, cadmium and manganese were within their respective maximum permissible daily levels. However, some species, especially Ocimum canum (8), Clausena anisata and Rauwolfia vomitoria had levels of iron higher than the maximum permissible level of 1000 µg/day and may require care to avoid iron toxicity. The results also highlighted the differences in contents of minerals in Lippia multiflora obtained from different locations in Ghana. The findings generally suggest that the use of these plant species for the management of diseases will not cause heavy metal toxicity and may be beneficial to the users in cases of micronutrient deficiency, as these metals were found to be present in readily bioavailable form.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kofi Annan
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon
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Mitchell E, Frisbie S, Sarkar B. Exposure to multiple metals from groundwater-a global crisis: geology, climate change, health effects, testing, and mitigation. Metallomics 2011; 3:874-908. [PMID: 21766119 DOI: 10.1039/c1mt00052g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents an overview of the global extent of naturally occurring toxic metals in groundwater. Adverse health effects attributed to the toxic metals most commonly found in groundwater are reviewed, as well as chemical, biochemical, and physiological interactions between these metals. Synergistic and antagonistic effects that have been reported between the toxic metals found in groundwater and the dietary trace elements are highlighted, and common behavioural, cultural, and dietary practices that are likely to significantly modify health risks due to use of metal-contaminated groundwater are reviewed. Methods for analytical testing of samples containing multiple metals are discussed, with special attention to analytical interferences between metals and reagents. An overview is presented of approaches to providing safe water when groundwater contains multiple metallic toxins.
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Soderland P, Lovekar S, Weiner DE, Brooks DR, Kaufman JS. Chronic kidney disease associated with environmental toxins and exposures. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 2010; 17:254-64. [PMID: 20439094 DOI: 10.1053/j.ackd.2010.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2010] [Revised: 03/31/2010] [Accepted: 03/31/2010] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
People are exposed to various potentially toxic agents and conditions in their natural and occupational environments. These agents may be physical or chemical, may enter the human body through oral, inhalational, or transdermal routes, and may exert effects on all organ systems. Several well-known as well as lesser known associations exist between chronic kidney disease (CKD) and both environmental agents and conditions, such as heavy metals, industrial chemicals, elevated ambient temperatures, and infections. The effects of these agents may be modulated by genetic susceptibility and other comorbid conditions and may lead to the development of acute and CKD. In this article, we present environmental factors that are associated with CKD.
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