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Wasserberger KW, Giordano KA, de Swart A, Barfield JW, Oliver GD. Energy generation, absorption, and transfer at the shoulder and elbow in youth baseball pitchers. Sports Biomech 2024; 23:1160-1175. [PMID: 34100333 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2021.1933158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Performance during the baseball pitch is dependent on the flow of mechanical energy through the kinetic chain. Little is known about energy flow during the pitching motion and it is not known whether patterns of energy flow are related to pitching performance and injury risk. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to quantify energy generation, absorption, and transfer across the shoulder and elbow during the baseball pitch and explore the associations between these energetic measures, pitch speed, and traditional measures of upper extremity joint loading. The kinematics of 40 youth baseball pitchers were measured in a controlled laboratory setting. Energy flow between the thorax, humerus, and forearm was calculated using a segmental power analysis. Regression analyses revealed that pitch speed was best predicted by arm cocking phase shoulder energy transfer to the humerus and peak elbow valgus torque was best predicted by arm acceleration-phase elbow energy transfer to the forearm. Additionally, energy transfer across the shoulder and elbow generally exhibited the strongest correlations to pitch speed and upper extremity joint loads. These data reinforce the importance of energy transfer through the kinetic chain for producing high pitch speeds and provide descriptive data for energy flow during baseball pitching not previously found in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle W Wasserberger
- Sports Medicine and Movement Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Kevin A Giordano
- Sports Medicine and Movement Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Anne de Swart
- Sports Medicine and Movement Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Jeff W Barfield
- Sports Medicine and Movement Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Gretchen D Oliver
- Sports Medicine and Movement Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
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2
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de Swart AFMJ, van Trigt B, Wasserberger K, Hoozemans MJM, Veeger DHEJ, Oliver GD. Energy flow through the lower extremities in high school baseball pitching. Sports Biomech 2022:1-15. [PMID: 36226680 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2022.2129430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
It is generally accepted that most of the energy transferred to the ball during a baseball pitch is generated in the trunk and lower extremities. Therefore, purpose of this study was to assess the energy flow through the lower extremities during a baseball pitch. It was hypothesised that the (stabilising) leading leg mainly transfers energy in a distal-to-proximal order as a kinetic chain while the (driving) trailing leg generates most energy, primarily at the hip. A joint power analysis was used to determine the rates of energy (power) transfer and generation in the ankles, knees, hips and lumbosacral joint (L5-S1) for 22 youth pitchers. Analyses showed that the leading leg mainly transfers energy upwards in a distal-to-proximal order just before stride foot contact. Furthermore, energy generation was higher in the trailing leg and primarily arose from the trailing hip. In conclusion, the legs contribute differently to the energy flow where the leading leg acts as an initial kinetic chain component and the trailing leg drives the pitch by generating energy. The actions of both legs are combined in the pelvis and passed on to the subsequent, more commonly discussed, open kinetic chain starting at L5-S1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne F M J de Swart
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Bart van Trigt
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Kyle Wasserberger
- Sports Medicine and Movement Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
- Research and Development, Driveline Baseball, Kent, WA, USA
| | - Marco J M Hoozemans
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - DirkJan H E J Veeger
- Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Gretchen D Oliver
- Sports Medicine and Movement Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
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3
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Naito K. Time-varying motor control strategy for proximal-to-distal sequential energy distribution: insights from baseball pitching. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:272107. [PMID: 34495332 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.227207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The importance of a proximal-to-distal (P-D) sequential motion in baseball pitching is generally accepted; however, the mechanisms behind this sequential motion and motor control theories that explain which factor transfers mechanical energy between the trunk and arm segments are not completely understood. This study aimed to identify the energy distribution mechanisms among the segments and determine the effect of the P-D sequence on the mechanical efficiency of the throwing movement, focusing on the time-varying motor control. The throwing motions of 16 male collegiate baseball pitchers were measured by a motion capture system. An induced power analysis was used to decompose the system mechanical energy into its muscular and interactive torque-dependent components. The results showed that the P-D sequential energy flow during the movement was mainly attributed to three different joint controls of the energy generation and muscular torque- and centrifugal force-induced energy transfer. The trunk muscular torques provided the primary energy sources of the system mechanical energy, and the shoulder and elbow joints played the roles of the energy-transfer effect. The mechanical energy expenditure on the throwing hand and ball accounted for 72.7% of the total muscle work generated by the trunk and arm joints (329.2 J). In conclusion, the P-D sequence of the throwing motion is an effective way to utilize the proximal joints as the energy source and reduce muscular work production of the distal joints. This movement control assists in efficient throwing, and is consistent with the theory of the leading joint hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kozo Naito
- Faculty of Education, Soka University, 1-236 Tangi-machi, Hachioji 192-8577, Japan
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4
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Manzi JE, Dowling B, Wang Z, Kunze KN, Estrada J, Fu MC, McElheny KL, Carr JB, Dines JS. Association of Pitch Timing and Throwing Arm Kinetics in High School and Professional Pitchers. Am J Sports Med 2021; 49:3386-3394. [PMID: 34406101 DOI: 10.1177/03635465211031853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding the relationship between the temporal phases of the baseball pitch and subsequent joint loading may improve our understanding of optimal pitching mechanics and contribute to injury prevention in baseball pitchers. PURPOSE To investigate the temporal phases of the pitching motion and their associations with ball velocity and throwing arm kinetics in high school (HS) and professional (PRO) baseball pitchers. STUDY DESIGN Descriptive laboratory study. METHODS PRO (n = 317) and HS (n = 54) baseball pitchers were evaluated throwing 8 to 12 fastball pitches using 3-dimensional motion capture (480 Hz). Four distinct phases of the pitching motion were evaluated based on timing of angular velocities: (1) Foot-Pelvis, (2) Pelvis-Torso, (3) Torso-Elbow, and (4) Elbow-Ball. Peak elbow varus torque, shoulder internal rotation torque, and shoulder distraction force were also calculated and compared between playing levels using 2-sample t tests. Linear mixed-effect models with compound symmetry covariance structures were used to correlate pitch velocity and throwing arm kinetics with the distinct temporal phases of the pitching motion. RESULTS PRO pitchers had greater weight and height, and faster ball velocities than HS pitchers (P < .001). There was no difference in total pitch time between groups (P = .670). PRO pitchers spent less time in the Foot-Pelvis (P = .010) and more time in the Pelvis-Torso (P < .001) phase comparatively. Shorter time spent in the earlier phases of the pitching motion was significantly associated with greater ball velocity for both PRO and HS pitchers (Foot-Pelvis: B = -6.4 and B = -11.06, respectively; Pelvis-Torso: B = -6.4 and B = -11.4, respectively), while also associated with increased shoulder proximal force (Pelvis-Torso: B = -76.4 and B = -77.5, respectively). Decreased time in the Elbow-Ball phase correlated with greater shoulder proximal force for both cohorts (B = -1150 and B = -645, respectively) with no significant correlation found for ball velocity. CONCLUSION Significant differences in temporal phases exist between PRO and HS pitchers. For all pitchers, increased time spent in the final phase of the pitching motion has the potential to decrease shoulder distraction force with no significant loss in ball velocity. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Identifying risk factors for increased shoulder and elbow kinetics, acting as a surrogate for loading at the respective joints, has potential implications in injury prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brittany Dowling
- Sports Performance Center, Midwest Orthopaedics at Rush, Oak Brook, Illinois, USA
| | - Zhaorui Wang
- Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, USA
| | - Kyle N Kunze
- Sports Medicine Institute Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jennifer Estrada
- Sports Medicine Institute Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, New York, USA
| | - Michael C Fu
- Sports Medicine Institute Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, New York, USA
| | - Kathryn L McElheny
- Sports Medicine Institute Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, New York, USA
| | - James B Carr
- Sports Medicine Institute Hospital for Special Surgery Florida, West Palm Beach, Florida, USA
| | - Joshua S Dines
- Sports Medicine Institute Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, New York, USA
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Manzi JE, Dowling B, Dines JS, Wang Z, Kunze KN, Thacher R, McElheny KL, Carr JB. The association of stride length to ball velocity and elbow varus torque in professional pitchers. J Sports Sci 2021; 39:2658-2664. [PMID: 34240663 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2021.1949190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Professional basebal pitchers (n =315) were divided into quartiles based on increasing stride length and random intercept linear mixed-effect models were used to correlate stride length with ball velocity, pelvis and trunk rotation at foot contact, and throwing arm kinetics. Average stride length among all pitchers was 78.3±5.3%body height (%BH). For every 10% increase in stride length, ball velocity increased by 0.9 m/s (B =0.089, β =0.25, p <0.001) and trunk rotation initiation occurred 4.23 ms earlier (B =-0.42, β =-0.14, p <0.001). When divided into quartiles pelvis rotation was less towards home plate in Q1 compared to Q3 and Q4 (70.0±10.7° vs. 60.9±8.9° and 58.6±9.1°, p <0.001). No significant differences in shoulder internal rotation torque (p =0.173) or elbow varus torque (p =0.072) were noted between quartiles. Professional baseball pitchers who reached stride lengths of 80%BH or greater achieved faster ball velocity without an increase in elbow varus torque. This may, be a byproduct of rotating the pelvis for a greater proportion of the pitching motion and thereby more effectively utilising the lower extremities in the kinetic chain. Encouraging players to achieve this threshold of stride length may enhance ball velocity outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brittany Dowling
- Sports Performance Center, Midwest Orthopaedics at Rush, Oak Brook, IL, US
| | - Joshua S Dines
- Sports Medicine Institute West Side, Sports Medicine Institute Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, US
| | | | - Kyle N Kunze
- Sports Medicine Institute West Side, Sports Medicine Institute Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, US
| | - Ryan Thacher
- Sports Medicine Institute West Side, Sports Medicine Institute Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, US
| | - Kathryn L McElheny
- Sports Medicine Institute West Side, Sports Medicine Institute Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, US
| | - James B Carr
- Sports Medicine Institute Florida, Sports Medicine Institute Hospital for Special Surgery Florida, West Palm Beach, FL, US
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Alderink GJ, Kepple T, Stanhope SJ, Aguinaldo A. Upper body contributions to pitched ball velocity in elite high school pitchers using an induced velocity analysis. J Biomech 2021; 120:110360. [PMID: 33730562 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2021.110360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Interest in joint and segment contributions to pitched ball velocity has been dominated by inverse dynamic solutions, which is limited in ascertaining complex muscle/joint interactions. Our purpose was to use induced velocity analysis to investigate which joint(s) made the largest contribution to the velocity of a pitched ball. Pitching data were collected from six elite high school-aged pitchers with no history of arm injury. Participants threw a fastball pitch from the windup on flat ground. Data were collected using seven Vicon 612 cameras (250 Hz) and three AMTI force platforms (1000 Hz). A 14-segment biomechanical model (feet, legs, thighs, pelvis, a combined thorax-abdomen-head, i.e., trunk, upper arms, forearms, and hands) was implemented in Visual3D as a dynamic link library built using SD/Fast (PTC) software. Model-generated induced velocity of the ball was validated against ball velocity obtained from a calibrated radar gun. Velocity induced torques at the shoulder just prior to release, and elbow during the cocking phase, contributed 31.0% and 18.1%, respectively, to forward ball velocity. The centripetal/Coriolis effects from the upper arm and forearm velocities made the largest contribution to ball velocity (average 57.8%), but the source of these effects are unknown. The lower extremities and trunk made little direct contribution to pitched ball velocity. These results may have implications with regard to pitching performance enhancement and rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon J Alderink
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Health Professions, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, MI, USA.
| | | | - Steven J Stanhope
- Biomechanics & Movement Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA; Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA; Mechanical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA; Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Arnel Aguinaldo
- Department of Kinesiology, Point Loma Nazarene University, San Diego, CA, USA
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7
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Oliver GD, Wasserberger K, de Swart A, Friesen K, Downs J, Bordelon N. Hip Range of Motion and Strength and Energy Flow During Windmill Softball Pitching. J Athl Train 2021; 56:280-285. [PMID: 33618349 DOI: 10.4085/1062-6050-145-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Inadequate hip range of motion (ROM) and isometric strength (ISO) may interfere with energy flow through the kinetic chain and result in increased injury susceptibility. OBJECTIVE To examine the relationship of hip ROM and ISO with energy flow through the trunk and pitching-arm segments during the windmill softball pitch in youth athletes. A subsequent purpose was to examine the relationship between energy flow and pitch speed. DESIGN Descriptive laboratory study. SETTING University research laboratory. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS A sample of 29 youth softball pitchers (age = 11.2 ± 1.3 years, height = 155.0 ± 10.4 cm, mass = 53.2 ± 12.6 kg). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Bilateral hip internal-rotation and external-rotation (ER) ROM and ISO were measured. Net energy outflow and peak rates of energy outflow from the distal ends of the trunk, humerus, and forearm were calculated for the acceleration phase of the windmill softball pitch, and pitch speed was measured. RESULTS Regression analysis revealed an effect of drive-hip ER ISO on the net energy flow out of the distal ends of the trunk (P = .045) and humerus (P = .002). Specifically, increased drive-hip ER ISO was associated with increased net energy outflow from the trunk to the humerus and from the humerus to the forearm. No significant effects of hip ROM or other hip ISO measures were observed. Additionally, pitchers who achieved higher peak rates of distal outflow tended to achieve higher pitch speeds. CONCLUSIONS An association was present between drive-hip ER ISO and the net energy flow out of the distal ends of the trunk and humerus during the acceleration phase of the windmill softball pitch, emphasizing the importance of hip and lower body strength in executing the whole-body windmill pitch. Overall, energy-flow analysis is an interesting new way to analyze pitching mechanics and will aid in furthering our understanding of performance and injury risk in windmill softball pitching.
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8
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Barfield JW, Wasserberger KW, Oliver GD. Relationship Between Humeral Energy Flow During the Baseball Pitch and Glenohumeral Stability. Int J Sports Med 2020; 42:760-765. [PMID: 33352598 DOI: 10.1055/a-1303-4369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Researchers suggest that motion deriving energy from the more proximal segments of the body is important to reduce injury susceptibility. However, limited clinical assessments have been associated with efficient energy flow within a complex movement such as the baseball pitch. This research aimed to determine the relationship between glenohumeral stability as determined by the closed kinetic chain upper extremity stability test and energy transfer into and out of the humerus during the baseball pitching motion. Kinematic and kinetic data were collected at 240 Hz on twenty-four baseball pitchers. Participants performed the closed kinetic chain upper extremity stability test prior to throwing three fastballs at game speed to a catcher with the fastest fastball used for analysis. Spearman's Rho were used to examine relationships between energy flow in and out of the humerus with glenohumeral stability as determined by the average score and normalized stance width during the closed kinetic chain upper extremity stability test. There was a significant negative correlation between the average score and normalized peak power leaving the humerus (r s[22]=-0.42, p=0.04). This result provides preliminary support for the use of the closed kinetic chain upper extremity stability test as a clinical assessment of a pitcher's ability to efficiently transfer energy within the upper extremity during the pitch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeff W Barfield
- Department of Physical Education and Exercise Science, Lander University, Greenwood, USA
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9
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Aguinaldo AL, Escamilla RF. Induced power analysis of sequential body motion and elbow valgus load during baseball pitching. Sports Biomech 2020; 21:824-836. [PMID: 32022646 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2019.1696881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The flow of mechanical energy of segmental motion during baseball pitching is poorly understood, particularly in relation to the valgus torque at the elbow which is prone to pitching-related injuries. This study employed an induced power analysis to determine the components of muscle and velocity-dependent torques that contribute to the power of throwing arm segments when the elbow is under valgus load during the arm-cocking phase of pitching. The 3D throwing kinematics and kinetics of 10 adult pitchers were included in this analysis. Pitchers threw with a maximum elbow valgus torque of 73 ± 20 N•m. The trunk flexion and rotation components of the velocity-dependent torque were the greatest contributors to the work of the forearm at -0.53 ± 0.22 J/kg and -0.43 ± 0.21 J/kg, respectively. Approximately 86% of the total energy transferred through the elbow by the velocity-dependent torque was due to trunk motion, which appears to drive the power of accelerating the throwing elbow in valgus. These results support the importance of trunk motion as a key component in the development of elbow torque and ball velocity. Therefore, this study has practical implications for baseball pitchers seeking to minimise injury risk while improving performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnel L Aguinaldo
- Department of Kinesiology, Point Loma Nazarene University, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Rafael F Escamilla
- Department of Physical Therapy, California State University, Sacramento, CA, USA
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10
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Contribution of Hip Joint Kinetics to Rotate the Pelvis during Baseball Pitching. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020. [DOI: 10.5432/ijshs.201920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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11
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Kimura A, Yoshioka S, Omura L, Fukashiro S. Mechanical properties of upper torso rotation from the viewpoint of energetics during baseball pitching. Eur J Sport Sci 2019; 20:606-613. [DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2019.1646810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Arata Kimura
- Department of Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Leon Omura
- Department of Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Senshi Fukashiro
- Department of Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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12
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Aguinaldo A, Escamilla R. Segmental Power Analysis of Sequential Body Motion and Elbow Valgus Loading During Baseball Pitching: Comparison Between Professional and High School Baseball Players. Orthop J Sports Med 2019; 7:2325967119827924. [PMID: 30828584 PMCID: PMC6390228 DOI: 10.1177/2325967119827924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Pitching-related elbow injuries remain prevalent across all levels of
baseball. Elbow valgus torque has been identified as a modifiable risk
factor of injuries to the ulnar collateral ligament in skeletally mature
pitchers. Purpose: To examine how segmental energy flow (power) influences elbow valgus torque
and ball speed in professional versus high school baseball pitchers. Study Design: Descriptive laboratory study. Methods: A total of 16 professional pitchers (mean age, 21.9 ± 3.6 years) and 15 high
school pitchers (mean age, 15.5 ± 1.1 years) participated in marker-based
motion analysis of baseball pitching. Ball speed, maximum elbow valgus
torque (MEV), temporal parameters, and mechanical power of the trunk, upper
arm, and forearm were collected and compared using parametric statistical
methods. Results: Professional pitchers threw with a higher ball speed (36.3 ± 2.9 m/s)
compared with high school pitchers (30.4 ± 3.5 m/s) (P =
.001), and MEV was greater in professional pitchers (71.3 ± 20.0 N·m) than
in high school pitchers (50.7 ± 14.6 N·m) (P = .003). No
significant difference in normalized MEV was found between groups
(P = .497). Trunk rotation time, trunk power, and upper
arm power combined to predict MEV (r = 0.823,
P < .001), while trunk rotation time and trunk power
were the only predictors of ball speed (r = 0.731,
P < .001). There were significant differences
between the professional and high school groups in the timing of maximum
pelvis rotation velocity (42.9 ± 9.7% of the pitching cycle [%PC] vs 27.9 ±
23.4 %PC, respectively; P < .025), maximum trunk
rotation (33 ± 16 %PC vs 2 ± 23 %PC, respectively; P =
.001), and maximum shoulder internal rotation velocity (102.4 ± 8.9 %PC vs
93.0 ± 11.7 %PC, respectively; P = .017). Conclusion: The power of trunk motion plays a critical role in the development of elbow
valgus torque and ball speed. Professional and high school pitchers do not
differ in elbow torque relative to their respective size but appear to adopt
different patterns of segmental motion. Clinical Relevance: Because trunk rotation supplies the power associated with MEV and ball speed,
training methods aimed at core stabilization and flexibility may benefit
professional and high school pitchers in reducing the injury risk and
improving pitching performance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rafael Escamilla
- California State University-Sacramento, Sacramento, California, USA
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13
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Gasparutto X, van der Graaff E, van der Helm FCT, Veeger DHEJ. Influence of biomechanical models on joint kinematics and kinetics in baseball pitching. Sports Biomech 2018; 20:96-108. [PMID: 30484740 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2018.1523453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
In baseball pitching, biomechanical parameters have been linked to ball velocity and potential injury risk. However, although the features of a biomechanical model have a significant influence on the kinematics and kinetics of a motion, this influence have not been assessed for pitching. The aim of this study was to evaluate the choice of the trunk and shoulder features, by comparing two models using the same input. The models differed in thoraco-humeral joint definition (moving or fixed with the thorax), joint centre estimation, values of the inertial parameters and computational framework. One professional pitcher participated in the study. We found that the different features of the biomechanical models have a substantial influence on the kinematics and kinetics of the pitchers. With a fixed thoraco-humeral joint the peak average thorax angular velocity was delayed and underestimated by 17% and the shoulder internal rotation velocity was overestimated by 7%. The use of a thoraco-humeral joint fixed to the thorax will lead to an overestimation of the rotational power at the shoulder and will neglect the power produced by the forward and upward translation of the shoulder girdle. These findings have direct implications for the interpretation of shoulder muscle contributions to the pitch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Gasparutto
- Department of BioMechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology , Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Erik van der Graaff
- Department of BioMechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology , Delft, The Netherlands.,Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Frans C T van der Helm
- Department of BioMechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology , Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Dirkjan H E J Veeger
- Department of BioMechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology , Delft, The Netherlands.,Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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14
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Multi-body dynamic coupling mechanism for generating throwing arm velocity during baseball pitching. Hum Mov Sci 2017; 54:363-376. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2017.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Revised: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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15
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Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine hip joint kinetics during a table tennis topspin forehand, and to investigate the relationship between the relevant kinematic and kinetic variables and the racket horizontal and vertical velocities at ball impact. Eighteen male advanced table tennis players hit cross-court topspin forehands against backspin balls. The hip joint torque and force components around the pelvis coordinate system were determined using inverse dynamics. Furthermore, the work done on the pelvis by these components was also determined. The peak pelvis axial rotation velocity and the work done by the playing side hip pelvis axial rotation torque were positively related to the racket horizontal velocity at impact. The sum of the work done on the pelvis by the backward tilt torques and the upward joint forces was positively related to the racket vertical velocity at impact. The results suggest that the playing side hip pelvis axial rotation torque exertion is important for acquiring a high racket horizontal velocity at impact. The pelvis backward tilt torques and upward joint forces at both hip joints collectively contribute to the generation of the racket vertical velocity, and the mechanism for acquiring the vertical velocity may vary among players.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoichi Iino
- a Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences , The University of Tokyo , Tokyo , Japan
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16
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Iino Y, Kojima T. Mechanical energy generation and transfer in the racket arm during table tennis topspin backhands. Sports Biomech 2016; 15:180-97. [PMID: 27111711 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2016.1159722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The ability to generate a high racket speed and a large amount of racket kinetic energy on impact is important for table tennis players. The purpose of this study was to understand how mechanical energy is generated and transferred in the racket arm during table tennis backhands. Ten male advanced right-handed table tennis players hit topspin backhands against pre-impact topspin and backspin balls. The joint kinetics at the shoulder, elbow and wrist of the racket arm was determined using inverse dynamics. A majority of the mechanical energy of the racket arm acquired during forward swing (65 and 77% against topspin and backspin, respectively) was due to energy transfer from the trunk. Energy transfer by the shoulder joint force in the vertical direction was the largest contributor to the mechanical energy of the racket arm against both spins and was greater against backspin than against topspin (34 and 28%, respectively). The shoulder joint force directed to the right, which peaked just before impact, transferred additional energy to the racket. Our results suggest that the upward thrust of the shoulder and the late timing of the axial rotation of the upper trunk are important for an effective topspin backhand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoichi Iino
- a Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences , The University of Tokyo , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Takeji Kojima
- a Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences , The University of Tokyo , Tokyo , Japan
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17
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Matsuo T, Jinji T, Hirayama D, Nasu D, Ozaki H. Radio-ulnar joint supinates around ball release during baseball fastball pitching. Sports Biomech 2016; 15:220-33. [DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2016.1159725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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18
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Naito K, Takagi H, Yamada N, Hashimoto S, Maruyama T. Intersegmental dynamics of 3D upper arm and forearm longitudinal axis rotations during baseball pitching. Hum Mov Sci 2014; 38:116-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2014.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2012] [Revised: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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19
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Martin C, Bideau B, Bideau N, Nicolas G, Delamarche P, Kulpa R. Energy flow analysis during the tennis serve: comparison between injured and noninjured tennis players. Am J Sports Med 2014; 42:2751-60. [PMID: 25167995 DOI: 10.1177/0363546514547173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Energy flow has been hypothesized to be one of the most critical biomechanical concepts related to tennis performance and overuse injuries. However, the relationships among energy flow during the tennis serve, ball velocity, and overuse injuries have not been assessed. PURPOSE To investigate the relationships among the quality and magnitude of energy flow, the ball velocity, and the peaks of upper limb joint kinetics and to compare the energy flow during the serve between injured and noninjured tennis players. STUDY DESIGN Case-control study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS The serves of expert tennis players were recorded with an optoelectronic motion capture system. The forces and torques of the upper limb joints were calculated from the motion captures by use of inverse dynamics. The amount of mechanical energy generated, absorbed, and transferred was determined by use of a joint power analysis. Then the players were followed during 2 seasons to identify upper limb overuse injuries with a questionnaire. Finally, players were classified into 2 groups according to the questionnaire results: injured or noninjured. RESULTS Ball velocity increased and upper limb joint kinetics decreased with the quality of energy flow from the trunk to the hand + racket segment. Injured players showed a lower quality of energy flow through the upper limb kinetic chain, a lower ball velocity, and higher rates of energy absorbed by the shoulder and elbow compared with noninjured players. CONCLUSION The findings of this study imply that improper energy flow during the tennis serve can decrease ball velocity, increase upper limb joint kinetics, and thus increase overuse injuries of the upper limb joints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Martin
- M2S Laboratory, UFR APS, University of Rennes 2-ENS Cachan, Campus de Ker Lann, Bruz, France
| | - Benoit Bideau
- M2S Laboratory, UFR APS, University of Rennes 2-ENS Cachan, Campus de Ker Lann, Bruz, France
| | - Nicolas Bideau
- M2S Laboratory, UFR APS, University of Rennes 2-ENS Cachan, Campus de Ker Lann, Bruz, France
| | - Guillaume Nicolas
- M2S Laboratory, UFR APS, University of Rennes 2-ENS Cachan, Campus de Ker Lann, Bruz, France
| | - Paul Delamarche
- M2S Laboratory, UFR APS, University of Rennes 2-ENS Cachan, Campus de Ker Lann, Bruz, France
| | - Richard Kulpa
- M2S Laboratory, UFR APS, University of Rennes 2-ENS Cachan, Campus de Ker Lann, Bruz, France
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