Natural co-occurrence of aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol in poultry feed in Pakistan

Prevalence and Concentration of Mycotoxins in Animal Feed in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

This study seeks a comprehensive meta-analysis of mycotoxin contaminants in animal feed consumed in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The obtained articles were reviewed, and 49 articles that investigated the contamination of mycotoxins including aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), T-2 toxin, fumonisins (FUM), and ochratoxin A (OTA), in feed samples or components of animal feed in the MENA region were selected. The titles of the final articles included in the study were meta-analyzed. Necessary information was extracted and categorized from the articles, and a meta-analysis was performed using Stata software. The highest contamination was in dry bread (80%), and Algeria was the most contaminated country (87% of animal feed), with the most mycotoxins contaminating AFs (47%) and FUM (47%). The highest concentration of mycotoxins in animal feed is related to FUM (1240.01 μg/kg). Climate change, economic situation, agricultural and processing methods, the nature of the animal feed, and improper use of food waste in animal feed are among the most critical factors that are effective in the occurrence of mycotoxin contamination in animal feed in MENA. Control of influential factors in the occurrence of contaminations and rapid screening with accurate identification methods to prevent the occurrence and spread of mycotoxin contamination of animal feed seem important.

LC-MS/MS based appraisal of multi-mycotoxin co-occurrence in poultry feeds from different regions of Punjab, Pakistan

Mycotoxins, being a threat to animal and human health, contribute significantly towards economic losses in the poultry sector. A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-based study was conducted on poultry feed samples collected from Punjab, Pakistan to evaluate the prevalence, contamination levels, and co-occurrence of multi-mycotoxins across different processed forms of the feed, types of utilities and sampling regions. All samples were found to be contaminated with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FB1). The European Commission (EC) maximum level for AFB1 in complete feedingstuffs in poultry and guidance values for FB1 and zearalenone (ZEN) were exceeded in 73%, 2%, and 14% of the contaminated samples, respectively. The corresponding median values were 39.9 µg/kg, 205 µg/kg, and 34.5 µg/kg. In addition to exceeding contamination levels, a varying co-occurrence of three to fourteen mycotoxins was observed in each of the feed samples that calls for mitigation measures to safeguard the feed and its ingredients.

The toxicity mechanisms of DON to humans and animals and potential biological treatment strategies

Deoxynivalenol, also known as vomitotoxin, is produced by Fusarium, belonging to the group B of the trichothecene family. DON is widely polluted, mainly polluting cereal crops such as wheat, barley, oats, corn and related cereal products, which are closely related to lives of people and animals. At present, there have been articles summarizing DON induced toxicity, biological detoxification and the protective effect of natural products, but there is no systematic summary of this information. In addition to ribosome and endoplasmic reticulum, recent investigations support that mitochondrion is also organelles that DON can damage. DON can't directly act on mitochondria, but can indirectly cause mitochondrial damage and changes through other means. DON can indirectly inhibit mitochondrial biogenesis and mitochondrial electron transport chain activity, ATP production, and mitochondrial transcription and translation. This review will provide the latest progress on mitochondria as the research object, and systematically summarizes all the toxic mechanisms of DON. Here, we discuss DON induced mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis and various mitochondrial toxicity. For the toxicity of DON, many methods have been derived to prevent or reduce the toxicity. Biological detoxification and the antioxidant effect of natural products are potentially effective treatments for DON toxicity.

Effects of mycotoxin-contaminated feed on farm animals

Mycotoxins are secondary products produced by fungi in cereals and are frequently found in the livestock industry as contaminants of farm animal feed. Studies analyzing feed mycotoxins have been conducted worldwide and have confirmed the presence of mycotoxins with biological activity, including aflatoxin, ochratoxin A, fumonisin, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol, in a large proportion of feed samples. Exposure to mycotoxins can cause immunotoxicity and impair reproductive function in farm animals. In addition, exposure of tissues, such as the kidneys, liver, and intestines, to mycotoxins can exert histopathological changes that can interfere with animal growth and survival. This review describes previous studies regarding the presence of major mycotoxins in the feed of farm animals, especially pigs and poultry. Moreover, it describes the adverse effects of mycotoxins in farm animals following exposure, as well as the biological activity of mycotoxins in animal-derived cells. Mycotoxins have been shown to regulate signaling pathways, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, apoptosis, and proliferation in porcine and bovine cells. A clear understanding of the effects of mycotoxins on farm animals will help reduce farm household economic loss and address the health concerns of people who consume these meat and dairy products.

The efficiency of lactic acid bacteria against pathogenic fungi and mycotoxins

Mycotoxins are produced by some fungal species of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium and are common contaminants of a wide range of food commodities. Numerous strategies are used to minimise fungal growth and mycotoxin contamination throughout the food chain. This review addresses the use of lactic acid bacteria, which can inhibit fungal growth and participate in mycotoxin degradation and/or removal from contaminated food. Being beneficial for human and animal health, lactic acid bacteria have established themselves as an excellent solution to the problem of mycotoxin contamination, yet in practice their application in removing mycotoxins remains a challenge to be addressed by future research.

Combined toxicity of prevalent mycotoxins studied in fish cell line and zebrafish larvae revealed that type of interactions is dose-dependent

While, Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) are the most prevalent mycotoxins co-existing in grain products and animal feeds, little is known about their combinatorial toxicities on aquatic life-forms. We studied the individual and combined effects of these mycotoxins in a fish cell line (BF-2) and zebrafish larvae (wild-type and transgenic). The types of interactions in mycotoxins combinations on cell viability were determined by using Chou-Talalay model. Induction of oxidative stress pathway in mycotoxins-exposed BF-2 cells was assessed using high content screening (HCS). Mycotoxin-exposed wild-type zebrafish larvae were examined for mortality and morphological abnormalities and transgenic zebrafish larvae (expressing DsRed in the liver) were imaged using HCS and examined for liver abnormalities. Results showed that the cytotoxicity of mycotoxins in a decreasing order was AFB₁>DON>ZEN, however, the highest mortality rate and liver damage in zebrafish were observed for AFB₁ followed by ZEN. AFB₁+DON and AFB₁+ZEN synergistically enhanced the toxic effects on BF-2 cells and zebrafish while DON+ZEN showed antagonism. Interestingly, in the tertiary combination, the synergism seen at lower individual concentrations of mycotoxins progressively turned to an overall antagonism at higher doses. The results provide a scientific basis for the necessity to consider co-exposure when formulating risk-management strategies.

Decontamination of poultry feed from ochratoxin A by UV and sunlight radiations

BACKGROUND

Mycotoxin-contaminated feed is very dangerous for the growth and even life of poultry. The objective of the current study was to investigate the efficacy of ultra-violet irradiation for decontamination of ochratoxin A (OTA) in spiked and naturally contaminated poultry feed samples. Spiked and naturally contaminated feed samples were irradiated with ultra-violet light (UV) at distance of 25 cm over the feed samples. In vitro, the effect of UV intensity (0.1 mW cm(-2) at 254 nm UV-C) on different types of poultry feeds contaminated with OTA was evaluated. The same samples were also irradiated with sunlight and analysed for OTA by an indirect enzyme linked immunosorbent assay method.

RESULTS

Poultry feed samples containing 500 µg kg(-1) were 100% decontaminated in 180 min with UV radiation while OTA was decreased to 70-95 µg kg(-1) using the same poultry feed samples after 8 h sunlight irradiation. Therefore, UV light was found to be more effective. Only 1 h of UV irradiation was found to be sufficient to bring the OTA level to the maximum regulatory limit suggested for poultry feeds (100 µg kg(-1) ), while 8 h were needed to obtain this level using sunlight radiations.

CONCLUSION

The proposed approach is a viable option to reduce the level of OTA in contaminated poultry feeds. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

Analysis of trichothecenes in laboratory rat feed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A method for the determination of seven trichothecenes, neosolaniol (NEO), diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), fusarenon-X (FUS-X), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON) and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-ADON), in laboratory rat feed by GC-MS/MS was developed. Sample extraction and purification was performed by an acidified mixture of acetonitrile/water (80-20% v/v). Limits of quantitation (LOQs) were between 1 and 10 μg kg(-1) for all studied trichothecenes. Eight concentration levels between the LOQ and 100 × LOQ were used for the calibration curves. Matrix-matched calibration was used for quantitation purposes to compensate the detector signal enhancement obtained for all the analytes. The method accuracy was evaluated by recovery assays at three concentration levels, 25, 50 and 100 μg kg(-1) (n = 9). Recoveries ranged from 62% to 97% and precision, expressed as intra- and inter-day relative standard deviations, was evaluated for all compounds. The validated method was successfully applied to the analysis of 35 laboratory rat feed samples showing mycotoxin contamination in 66% of the samples. DON was the most prevalent trichothecene followed by 15-ADON, NIV and 3-ADON. The maximum DON concentration reached in real samples was 2156 ± 4.3 μg kg(-1), while NEO, DAS and FUS-X were not detected in any sample. Multi-contamination by at least two mycotoxins was observed in 17% of the analysed feed samples.

Aflatoxin B1 in eggs and chicken livers by dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction and HPLC

A rapid, low-cost and simple technique has been developed for the determination of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in eggs and livers using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV detection. In this study, the presence of AFB1 was investigated in 150 eggs and 50 chicken livers from the local market of Tabriz, Iran. AFB1 was extracted with a mixture of acetonitrile:water (80:20) and cleaned up by dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction which is a very economical, fast and sensitive method. AFB1 was quantified by HPLC-UV without need for any complex derivatisation in samples to enhance the detection. The results showed that 72% of the liver and 58% of the egg samples were contaminated with AFB1 ranging from 0.30 to 16.36 µg kg (̶1). limit of detection and limit of quantification for AFB1 were 0.08 and 0.28 µg kg (̶ 1), respectively. The proposed method is suitable for fast analysing of AFB1 in egg and liver samples.