Plant-based milks: unexplored source of emerging mycotoxins. A proposal for the control of enniatins and beauvericin using UHPLC-MS/MS

Mycotoxins in plant-based beverages: An updated occurrence

Plant-based diets are founded on consuming of foods of plant origin, aiming to replace or restrict the consumption of foods of animal origin. These diets have become popular in recent years, gaining new adherents daily. However, consumption of plant-based foods, like plant-based beverages, is a route of exposure to contaminants, such as mycotoxins. Mycotoxins are known for their toxic potential, causing damage to human health. Therefore, this study aimed to present a review providing new data to the population on exposure to mycotoxins by consumption of plant-based beverages. Based on the data collected, the occurrence of 21 mycotoxins was reported in plant-based beverages from different food matrices. Concerning probable daily intake, the highest values refer to deoxynivalenol, tentoxin, and fumonisin B1. In terms of exposure to mycotoxins, plant-based beverages can be present greater exposure to consumers than milk. Despite this, plant-based beverages alone do not pose a risk to consumer health.

Emerging mycotoxin occurrence in chicken feed and eggs from Algeria

Poultry farming has developed into one of Algeria's most productive industrial farming because of the growing demand for sources of protein among Algerian society. Laying hen feed consists mainly of cereals, which can be contaminated with molds and subsequently with their secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins. These later can pose a serious danger to the production and quality of eggs in the commercial layer industry. This work focuses on the detection of emerging mycotoxins, mainly enniatins (ENNs) and beauvericin (BEA), in poultry feed and eggs from different locations in Algeria. Two different QuEChERS-based extractions were established to extract ENNs and BEA from chicken feed and eggs. The determination of mycotoxin occurrence was achieved by a UHPLC-MS/MS method using 0.1% (v/v) formic acid in water and MeOH as mobile phase, an ESI interface operating in positive mode, and a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer operating in MRM for the detection. Matrix-matched calibration curves were carried out for both matrices, obtaining good linearity (R2 > 0.99). The method performance was assessed in terms of extraction recovery (from 87 to 107%), matrix effect (from - 47 to - 86%), precision (RSD < 15%), and limits of quantitation (≤ 1.1 µg/kg for feed and ≤ 0.8 µg/kg for eggs). The analysis of 10 chicken feed samples and 35 egg samples composed of a 10-egg pool each showed that ENN B1 was the most common mycotoxin (i.e., found in 9 feed samples) with contamination levels ranging from 3.6 to 41.5 µg/kg, while BEA was detected only in one feed sample (12 µg/kg). However, eggs were not found to be contaminated with any mycotoxin at the detection limit levels. Our findings indicate that the searched mycotoxins are present in traces in feed and absent in eggs. This can be explained by the application of a mycotoxin binder. However, this does not put a stop on the conduction of additional research and ultimately setting regulations to prevent the occurrence of emerging mycotoxins.

Application of a multi-toxin detect method to analyze mycotoxins occurrence in plant-based beverages

In recent years, plant-based beverages have gained popularity on the market due to environmental and ethical concerns, as well as milk intolerances and allergies. However, raw materials employed in the manufacture of these products are susceptible to mycotoxin contamination. For this reason, a new method based on a QuEChERS extraction procedure followed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) detection was developed for the analysis of 29 mycotoxins in oat, rice, soy, and almond beverages. The method was validated in terms of linearity, detection and quantification limits, matrix effect, recoveries, accuracy and precision. Satisfactory performance characteristics were achieved, with recoveries above 70% for most mycotoxins. Several commercial samples were analyzed, aflatoxins were frequently detected in rice and almond beverages, while T-2 and HT-2 toxins were identified in oat-based products. In addition, emerging mycotoxins such as enniatins and beauvericin were detected in the four types of beverages.

Determination of Mycotoxins in Plant-Based Meat Alternatives (PBMAs) and Ingredients after Microwave Cooking

In this study, we investigate the role of microwave cooking in reducing mycotoxin contamination in plant-based food matrices, with a focus on veggie burgers (purchased and home-made) and their ingredients (soybean, potatoes, zucchini, carrots). Two different conditions were studied (Max-Min) that were 800 W for 60 s and 800 W for 90 s, respectively. The degradation patterns of aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2), fumonisins (FB1, FB2, FB3), trichothecenes (T2, HT2, ZEA), and ochratoxin A (OTA) were studied. The extraction procedures were conducted with the QuEChERS extraction, and the analyses were conducted with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that degradation under microwave cooking varies considerably across different food matrices and cooking conditions. This study provides valuable insights into the degradation of mycotoxins during microwave cooking and underscores the need for more research in this area to ensure food safety.

An Occurrence Study of Mycotoxins in Plant-Based Beverages Using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

Mycotoxins are toxic mold metabolites that can adversely affect human and animal health. More than 400 mycotoxins have been identified so far. Cereals and nuts are the predominant mycotoxin-contaminated foodstuffs. Plant-based drinks produced from cereals, nuts, and legumes have grown in popularity. The mycotoxins accumulated in these crops may transfer to these beverages. A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and optimized for the assessment of 22 mycotoxins in commercially available plant-based drinks in Latvia and Lithuania. A total of 64% of the seventy-two analyzed beverages were positive for one to sixteen mycotoxins, with deoxynivalenol, beauvericin, and enniatins A, B, B1, T-2, and HT-2 toxins detected most frequently. The European Commission has not yet set guidelines for the maximum mycotoxin concentrations in plant-based beverages, nor has the European Food Safety Authority conducted a risk assessment. Therefore, acute exposure studies were provided for the Latvian population based on the assumed replacement of dairy milk with plant-based beverages to ascertain the safety of plant-based milk substitutes. Based on the observed levels of mycotoxin prevalence and contamination levels and assumed exposure, it can be concluded that tested plant-based beverages may be relatively safe. However, exposure to emerging mycotoxins should be considered.

Development of deep eutectic solvent-based microwave-assisted extraction combined with temperature controlled ionic liquid-based liquid phase microextraction for extraction of aflatoxins from cheese samples

In this study, for the first time, a deep eutectic solvent-based microwave-assisted extraction was combined with ionic liquid-based temperature controlled liquid phase microextraction for the extraction of several aflatoxins from cheese samples. Briefly, the analytes are extracted from cheese sample (3 g) into a mixture of 1.5 mL choline chloride:ethylene glycol deep eutectic solvent and 3.5 mL deionized water by exposing to microwave irradiations for 60 s at 180 W. The liquid phase was taken and mixed with 55 μL 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate. By cooling the solution in the refrigerator centrifuge, a turbid state was obtained and the analytes were extracted into the ionic liquid droplets. The analytes were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with fluorescence detector. Low limits of detection (9-23 ng kg-1 ) and quantification (30-77 ng kg-1 ), high extraction recovery (66%-83%), acceptable enrichment factor (40-50), and good precision (relative standard deviations ≤ 5.2%) were obtained using the offered approach. These results reveal the high extraction capability of the method for determination of aflatoxins in the cheese samples. In this method, there was no need for organic solvents and it can be considered as green extraction method.

Enzyme immunoassays for the detection of mycotoxins in plant-based milk alternatives: pitfalls and limitations

Plant-based milk alternatives (PBMAs) are a potential source of mycotoxin uptake. To ensure food safety, simple and rapid testing methods of PBMAs for mycotoxins are therefore required. This study investigated the applicability of enzyme immunoassay (EIA) methods for direct testing of PBMAs without sample extraction. Mycotoxin analyses included aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), sterigmatocystin (STC), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), and T-2/HT-2-toxin (T-2/HT-2). It was found that the PBMA matrix negatively affected the EIA to varying degrees, thus affecting the reliability of the results. A dilution of PBMAs of at least 1:8 was necessary to overcome matrix interference. This resulted in calculated detection limits of 0.4 µg/L (AFB₁), 2 µg/L (STC), 0.08 µg/L (OTA), 16 µg/L (DON), and 0.4 µg/L (T-2/HT-2). After analysis of 54 PBMA products from German retail stores, positive results in at least one test system were obtained for 23 samples. However, most positive results were near the calculated detection limit. Control analyses of selected samples by LC–MS/MS for AFB₁, STC, and OTA qualitatively confirmed the presence of trace amounts of STC in some samples, but quantitative agreement was poor. It was concluded that the high diversity of ingredients used in PBMAs led to a highly variable degree of sample matrix interference even in a 1:8 dilution. Since the use of higher dilutions conflicts with the need to achieve low detection limits, the application of EIA for routine mycotoxin analysis in PBMA for mycotoxins requires further study on the development of a feasible sample preparation method.

Multimycotoxin Analysis in Oat, Rice, Almond and Soy Beverages by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

This study developed and validated an analytical methodology for the determination of aflatoxins, enniatins, beauvericin, zearalenone, ochratoxin-A, alternariols, HT-2 and T-2 toxin in soy, oat, rice and almond beverages, based on solid phase extraction columns (SPE) and analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry in tandem. C18 SPE was successfully applied, obtaining recoveries that range from 72 ± 12% (ochratoxin-A) to 99 ± 4% (ENA1) at high level (L1) and 65 ± 8% (T-2) to 128 ± 9% (alternariol monomethyl ether) at low levels (L3). The methodology was validated according to Commission Decision 2002/657/EC, with limits of quantification ranging from 0.3 (AFs in oat beverages) to 18 ng/mL (HT-2 in rice beverage). The analysis of 56 beverage samples purchased from Valencia (Spain) showed at least one mycotoxin occurring in 95% of samples, including carcinogenic aflatoxins, and oat beverage was the most contaminated. This is a newest validated methodology for the quantification of sixty mycotoxins in oat, rice, almond and soy beverages.

Validation of an analytical method based on QuEChERS and LC-MS/MS to quantify nine mycotoxins in plant-based milk

Plant-based beverages (popularly known as vegetable milk) have become increasingly important in recent years. However, the nonexistence of information on mycotoxin contamination is noticeable. We herein describe the development and validation of an analytical methodology that employs QuEChERS and LC-MS/MS for the simultaneous determination of nine mycotoxins (aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2, fumonisins B1 and B2, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, and citreoviridin) in seven types of vegetable milk (peanut, oat, rice, cashew, maize, soybean, and coconut). The method provided the following quantification limits, recoveries at the lowest validated concentration and relative standard deviations under repeatability conditions at the lowest validated concentration, respectively: aflatoxin B1 (0.023 μg/l, 84.98 and 9.23%); aflatoxin B2 (0.024 μg/, 93.00 and 4.85%); aflatoxin G1 (0.057 μg/l, 98.85 and 5.53%); aflatoxin G2 (0.031 μg/l, 96.64 and 4.08%); fumonisin B1 (2.166 μg/l, 75.55 and 16.78%); fumonisin B2 (1.105 μg/l, 70.47 and 11.89%); ochratoxin A (0.104 μg/l, 72.05 and 5.12%); zearalenone (8.093 μg/l, 107.10 and 6.37%); citreoviridin (1.305 μg/l, 97.25 and 7.28%). The method uses small amounts of samples, solvents, and other inexpensive reagents with no need for laborious clean-up and pre-concentration steps. Its attractive characteristics (simplicity, low cost compared to procedures that use immunoaffinity columns, and full compatibility with routine analyses) make it potentially valuable. As a proof-of-principle, the validated methodology was applied to seven commercial samples of different compositions showing that some were contaminated with aflatoxins and ochratoxin A.

Emerging mycotoxins in infant and children foods: A review

A proper nutrition is crucial for children's healthy development. Regardless of the usual recommendations to follow a varied diet, some foods can be a source of toxic natural contaminants such as mycotoxins, potent secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. In addition to the most well-known mycotoxins, many of which are subject to tight regulation regarding the maximum levels allowed in different types of food, there is a large group of mycotoxins, the so-called emerging mycotoxins, about which less knowledge has already been acquired, which have gradually been the target of interest from the scientific community due to their prevalence in most foodstuffs, particularly in cereals and cereal-based products. Alternariol and his metabolite alternariol mono-methyl ether, beauvericin, citrinin, culmorin, enniatins, ergot alkaloids, fusaproliferin, kojic acid, moniliformin, sterigmatocystin, tentoxin and tenuazonic acid are the most representative of them. The current review gathered the information of the last ten years that have been published on the levels of emerging mycotoxins in food products dedicated for infants and children. European Union countries are responsible for most of the reported studies, which showed levels that can reach hundreds of mg/kg.

Critical Assessment of Mycotoxins in Beverages and Their Control Measures

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi that contaminate food products such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, and other agricultural commodities. Their occurrence in the food chain, especially in beverages, can pose a serious risk to human health, due to their toxicity, even at low concentrations. Mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin (PAT), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes (TCs), zearalenone (ZEN), and the alternaria toxins including alternariol, altenuene, and alternariol methyl ether have largely been identified in fruits and their derived products, such as beverages and drinks. The presence of mycotoxins in beverages is of high concern in some cases due to their levels being higher than the limits set by regulations. This review aims to summarize the toxicity of the major mycotoxins that occur in beverages, the methods available for their detection and quantification, and the strategies for their control. In addition, some novel techniques for controlling mycotoxins in the postharvest stage are highlighted.

Mycotoxins in Functional Beverages: A Review

Consumer dietary habits have drastically changed in recent decades and functional beverages now have a strong position in the market. The majority of these beverages are produced using simple processes that use raw products, such as cereals, legumes, fruits, and nuts, among others, and these are known to be frequently contaminated with mycotoxins. This review is focused on the occurrence of these toxic compounds in plant-based milks, fruit juices, and herbal teas. The fate of the toxins during processing is discussed to establish the potential risk posed by the consumption of these kind of beverages regarding mycotoxin uptake.