Carbonyl compounds in different stages of vinification and exposure risk assessment through Merlot wine consumption

Formation and hazard of ethyl carbamate and construction of genetically engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains in Huangjiu (Chinese grain wine)

Huangjiu, a well-known conventional fermented Chinese grain wine, is widely consumed in Asia for its distinct flavor. Trace amounts of ethyl carbamate (EC) may be generated during the fermentation or storage process. The International Agency for Research on Cancer elevated EC to a Class 2A carcinogen, so it is necessary to regulate EC content in Huangjiu. The risk of intake of dietary EC is mainly assessed through the margin of exposure (MOE) recommended by the European Food Safety Authority, with a smaller MOE indicating a higher risk. Interventions are necessary to reduce EC formation. As urea, one of the main precursors of EC formation in Huangjiu, is primarily produced by Saccharomyces cerevisiae through the catabolism of arginine, the construction of dominant engineered fermentation strains is a favorable trend for the future production and application of Huangjiu. This review summarized the formation and carcinogenic mechanism of EC from the perspectives of precursor substances, metabolic pathways after ingestion, and risk assessment. The methods of constructing dominant S. cerevisiae strains in Huangjiu by genetic engineering technology were reviewed, which provided an important theoretical basis for reducing EC content and strengthening practical control of Huangjiu safety, and the future research direction was prospected.

A Nationwide Survey and Risk Assessment of Ethyl Carbamate Exposure Due to Daily Intake of Alcoholic Beverages in the Chinese General Population

Ethyl carbamate (EC) is carcinogenic, and, in China, oral intake of EC mainly occurs as a result of the consumption of alcoholic beverages. To obtain the latest EC intake and risk analysis results for the general population in China, the China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment (CFSA) conducted the sixth total diet study (TDS) as a platform to analyze EC contents and exposure due to the intake of alcoholic beverages. A total of 100 sites in 24 provinces were involved in the collection and preparation of alcohol mixture samples for the sixth TDS. There were 261 different types of alcohol collected across the country, based on local dietary menus and consumption survey results. Ultimately, each province prepared a mixed sample by mixing their respective samples according to the percentage of local consumption. The EC levels of these twenty-four mixed samples were determined using our well-validated gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method. The values ranged from 1.0 μg/kg to 33.8 μg/kg, with 10.1 μg/kg being the mean. China's EC daily intake ranged from 0.001 ng/kg bw/d to 24.56 ng/kg bw/d, with a mean of 3.23 ng/kg bw/d. According to the margin of exposure (MOE), virtually safe dose (VSD), and T25 risk assessments of the carcinogenicity of EC, the mean lifetime cancer risk for the Chinese population was 9.8 × 104, 1.5 × 10-7, and 8.6 × 10-8, respectively. These data show that the carcinogenicity of EC in the general Chinese population due to alcoholic intake is essentially minimal.

Inhibitory Effect on Acrolein by Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and Its Acrolein Adducts from the Pigment of Mynica Red

Acrolein (ACR), the simplest α,β-unsaturated aldehyde, possesses high reactivity and toxicity both in vitro and in vivo and results in various chronic diseases. This has attracted increasing interest from researchers to screen various bioactive compounds to control it. In this article, we attempted to discover a new attribute of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G), including its ACR-scavenging capacity, reaction pathway, and possible application. Our findings revealed that C3G could capture ACR to form mono- and diadducts at room temperature by using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and we further synthesized and elucidated the structures of C3G-ACR and C3G-2ACR using HRMS and 2D NMR. The structural data validated that there were two active sites of C3G for trapping ACR: at C-6 in the A-ring and C-5' in the B-ring. In addition, we found that C3G-ACR exhibited a more remarkable clearing ability than C3G within a short time. More than 65.9% of ACR was eliminated by C3G-ACR within 5 min via further formation of C3G-2ACR, but there was no obvious effect of C3G on ACR. When the incubation time was extended to 120 min, C3G could remove up to 83.2% of ACR. Subsequently, we also observed that mynica red (>5% C3G), as a pigmented food additive, could efficiently eliminate ACR generated in the Chinese liquor model and real red bayberry wine products to form C3G-ACR and C3G-2ACR. Both adducts increased significantly, by 10 times to a 100 times, after adding mynica red to red bayberry wine products for 24 h; they also increased rapidly with prolonged incubation time in the liquor-mynica red model system. Therefore, our findings suggest that C3G or mynica red may be developed as a promising novel ACR inhibitor in fruit wine and assembled alcoholic drinks or as a health food.

An overview of chemical contaminants and other undesirable chemicals in alcoholic beverages and strategies for analysis

The presence of chemical contaminant in alcoholic beverages is a widespread and notable problem with potential implications for human health. With the complexity and wide variation in the raw materials, production processes, and contact materials involved, there are a multitude of opportunities for a diverse host of undesirable compounds to make their way into the final product-some of which may currently remain unidentified and undetected. This review provides an overview of the notable contaminants (including pesticides, environmental contaminants, mycotoxins, process-induced contaminants, residues of food contact material [FCM], and illegal additives) that have been detected in alcoholic products thus far based on prior reviews and findings in the literature, and will additionally consider the potential sources for contamination, and finally discuss and identify gaps in current analytical strategies. The findings of this review highlight a need for further investigation into unwanted substances in alcoholic beverages, particularly concerning chemical migrants from FCMs, as well as a need for comprehensive nontargeted analytical techniques capable of determining unanticipated contaminants.

Potential Adverse Public Health Effects Afforded by the Ingestion of Dietary Lipid Oxidation Product Toxins: Significance of Fried Food Sources

Exposure of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)-rich culinary oils (COs) to high temperature frying practices generates high concentrations of cytotoxic and genotoxic lipid oxidation products (LOPs) via oxygen-fueled, recycling peroxidative bursts. These toxins, including aldehydes and epoxy-fatty acids, readily penetrate into fried foods and hence are available for human consumption; therefore, they may pose substantial health hazards. Although previous reports have claimed health benefits offered by the use of PUFA-laden COs for frying purposes, these may be erroneous in view of their failure to consider the negating adverse public health threats presented by food-transferable LOPs therein. When absorbed from the gastrointestinal (GI) system into the systemic circulation, such LOPs may significantly contribute to enhanced risks of chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs), e.g. cancer, along with cardiovascular and neurological diseases. Herein, we provide a comprehensive rationale relating to the public health threats posed by the dietary ingestion of LOPs in fried foods. We begin with an introduction to sequential lipid peroxidation processes, describing the noxious effects of LOP toxins generated therefrom. We continue to discuss GI system interactions, the metabolism and biotransformation of primary lipid hydroperoxide LOPs and their secondary products, and the toxicological properties of these agents, prior to providing a narrative on chemically-reactive, secondary aldehydic LOPs available for human ingestion. In view of a range of previous studies focused on their deleterious health effects in animal and cellular model systems, some emphasis is placed on the physiological fate of the more prevalent and toxic α,β-unsaturated aldehydes. We conclude with a description of targeted nutritional and interventional strategies, whilst highlighting the urgent and unmet clinical need for nutritional and epidemiological trials probing relationships between the incidence of NCDs, and the frequency and estimated quantities of dietary LOP intake.

Chemical hazards in grapes and wine, climate change and challenges to face

Climate change has an impact on the chemical risks associated to wine consumption related with grape development and microbial contamination. We can classify chemical hazards in wine into two groups: those present in grapes due to agricultural practices, environmental contamination or fungal growth and those coming from fermentation and the winemaking process. The first group includes mycotoxins, whilst the second encompasses ethyl carbamate, biogenic amines, sulfur dioxide and proteins used as technological ingredients such as fining material. Usually the effective control of chemical hazards is achieved by assuring that they either are minimized or absent in the final product since their removal is somewhat difficult and sometimes it may affect sensory properties, which is a major issue in wine. Interestingly, it is possible to give recommendations to avoid excess of these compounds, but more research is needed to face future challenges related to climate change and consumer demands.

Validation of an analytical method using HS-SPME-GC/MS-SIM to assess the exposure risk to carbonyl compounds and furan derivatives through beer consumption

Compounds with toxic potential may occur in beer, such as carbonyl compounds (acetaldehyde, acrolein, ethyl carbamate [EC] and formaldehyde) and furan derivatives [furfural and furfuryl alcohol (FA)]. The objective of this study was, for the first time, to validate a method based on headspace-solid phase microextraction using a PDMS-overcoated fibre and gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection in selected ion monitoring mode (HS-SPME-GC/MS-SIM) to investigate target carbonyl compounds and furan derivatives in beers. Analytical curves showed proper linearity with r² ranging from 0.9731 to 0.9960 for acetaldehyde and EC, respectively. The lowest LOD was found for acetaldehyde (0.03 µg L^-1), while the lowest LOQ value (1.0 µg L^-1) was found for acetaldehyde and EC, formaldehyde and furfural. Recovery (90% to 105%), intermediate precision and repeatability (lower than 13%), limits of detection and quantification (values below 2.5 μg L^-1) showed that the method is suitable to simultaneously quantify these compounds. EC was detected in only two samples (1 lager and 1 ale). Furfural was found in 37% and 82% of ale and lager beers, respectively. Acetaldehyde, acrolein, formaldehyde and FA were detected in all samples. However, acrolein was the only compound found in the commercial samples at a concentration capable of causing health risk. Besides furfural and FA, four other furan-containing compounds (5-methyl-2-furan methanethiol, acetylfuran, 5-methylfurfural and γ-nonalactone) were also found in beers, however, at levels low enough not to impose potential health risk.