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Lu Z, Ri N, Jingxin W. The role of predictive and preview effects in Mongolian reading: evidence from eye movements. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1420223. [PMID: 39346505 PMCID: PMC11427253 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1420223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 09/04/2024] [Indexed: 10/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The research on contextual predictability in reading has been thoroughly investigated in the context of horizontal text comprehension. However, the performance of contextual predictive effects in Mongolian vertical reading remains unknown. Methods To explore this, we conducted an eye-tracking study using a boundary paradigm. Our study aimed to investigate contextual predictability and preview effects in Mongolian reading. Results We found significant main effects of predictability and previewing on temporal indicators. However, there were no significant effects on skipping rates, and no interaction between predictability and previewing was observed. Discussion We speculate that the unique reading orientation and writing features of Mongolian, compared to horizontally read phonetic scripts, reduce the parafoveal processing of preview information, leading to lower skipping rates in Mongolian reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhang Lu
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
- School of Education Science, Inner Mongolia Minzu University, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia, China
- Research Base of Inner Mongolia Education and Psychological Development, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia, China
| | - Na Ri
- School of Education Science, Inner Mongolia Minzu University, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia, China
- Research Base of Inner Mongolia Education and Psychological Development, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia, China
| | - Wang Jingxin
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
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Chiu TY, Drieghe D. The role of visual crowding in eye movements during reading: Effects of text spacing. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023; 85:2834-2858. [PMID: 37821744 PMCID: PMC10600290 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02787-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Visual crowding, generally defined as the deleterious influence of clutter on visual discrimination, is a form of inhibitory interaction between nearby objects. While the role of crowding in reading has been established in psychophysics research using rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) paradigms, how crowding affects additional processes involved in natural reading, including parafoveal processing and saccade targeting, remains unclear. The current study investigated crowding effects on reading via two eye-tracking experiments. Experiment 1 was a sentence-reading experiment incorporating an eye-contingent boundary change in which reader's parafoveal processing was quantified through comparing reading times after valid or invalid information was presented in the parafovea. Letter spacing was jointly manipulated to compare how crowding affects parafoveal processing. Experiment 2 was a passage-reading experiment with a line spacing manipulation. In addition to replicating previously observed letter spacing effects on global reading parameters (i.e., more but shorter fixations with wider spacing), Experiment 1 found an interaction between preview validity and letter spacing indicating that the efficiency of parafoveal processing was constrained by crowding and visual acuity. Experiment 2 found reliable but subtle influences of line spacing. Participants had shorter fixation durations, higher skipping probabilities, and less accurate return sweeps when line spacing was increased. In addition to extending the literature on the role of crowding to reading in ecologically valid scenarios, the current results inform future research on characterizing the influence of crowding in natural reading and comparing effects of crowding across reader populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-Yao Chiu
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, 225 Psychology Building, 1835 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA.
| | - Denis Drieghe
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
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Fackler NG, Gordon PC. Mask-related costs in measuring preview benefit: Evidence from a distributional analysis based on target word reading times. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023; 85:2475-2487. [PMID: 37532883 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02762-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
Skilled reading involves processing the upcoming word in parafoveal vision before it is fixated, leading to shorter fixations on that word. This phenomenon, parafoveal preview benefit, is a key component of theoretical models of reading; it is measured using the invisible boundary paradigm, in which reading times on a target word are compared for instances when preview is accurate and when the target word is masked while in the parafovea. However, parafoveal masks have been shown to induce unintentional processing costs, thereby inflating measures of preview benefit. The degraded mask has been explored as a potential solution to this problem, leading to mixed results. While previous work has analyzed the preview effect by comparing mean reading times on the target word, the present study provides a more comprehensive analysis by examining the distribution of the preview effect across target word fixation times for unrelated and degraded masks. Participants read sentences containing target words whose preview was either identical, unrelated, or degraded, and their eye movements were recorded. Analyses revealed that although there were no mean differences between reading times for the unrelated and degraded conditions, the pattern of the effects varied as a function of target word fixation times. Unrelated masks resulted in positively sloped generally linear delta plots, while degraded masks resulted in relatively flat delta plots for fixations longer than 200 ms. These differences suggest that different cognitive mechanisms are involved in the processing of the two mask types. Implications for understanding and measuring preview benefit are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikki G Fackler
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Peter C Gordon
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
- Department of Psychology, CB#3270, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 26599-3270, USA.
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Schotter ER, Milligan S, Estevez VM. Event-related potentials show that parafoveal vision is insufficient for semantic integration. Psychophysiology 2023:e14246. [PMID: 36811523 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
Readers extract information from a word from parafoveal vision prior to looking at it. It has been argued that parafoveal perception allows readers to initiate linguistic processes, but it is unclear which stages of word processing are engaged: the process of extracting letter information to recognize words, or the process of extracting meaning to comprehend them. This study used the event-related brain potential (ERP) technique to investigate how word recognition (indexed by the N400 effect for unexpected or anomalous compared to expected words) and semantic integration (indexed by the Late-positive component; LPC effect for anomalous compared to expected words) are or are not elicited when the word is perceived only in parafoveal vision. Participants read a target word following a sentence that made it expected, unexpected, or anomalous, and read the sentences presented three words at a time in the Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) with flankers paradigm so that words were perceived in parafoveal and foveal vision. We orthogonally manipulated whether the target word was masked in parafoveal and/or foveal vision to dissociate the processing associated with perception of the target word from either location. We found that the N400 effect was generated from parafoveally perceived words, and was reduced for foveally perceived words if they were previously perceived parafoveally. In contrast, the LPC effect was only elicited if the word was perceived foveally, suggesting that readers must attend to a word directly in foveal vision in order to attempt to integrate its meaning into the sentence context.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sara Milligan
- Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Victoria M Estevez
- Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
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5
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Preview frequency effects in reading: evidence from Chinese. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2022; 86:2256-2265. [PMID: 35083499 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-021-01628-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Studies about sentence reading have shown that visual and lexical information beyond the currently fixated word can be integrated across fixations. The gaze-contingent boundary paradigm has been used widely to explore the extent to which parafoveal information can be processed before a word is fixated on. However, a critical review of the current literature suggests that unrelated mask previews are an unlikely baseline control with zero lexical activation, blurring the nature of experimental effects observed in the paradigm. The present study, therefore, aimed at shedding light on the effect of parafoveal mask properties through a manipulation of preview word frequency. Low-frequency preview words that are unrelated to target words elicited a larger interference than high-frequency preview words. We discuss implications of the preview frequency effect for computational models of eye-movement control in reading.
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Huber-Huber C, Buonocore A, Melcher D. The extrafoveal preview paradigm as a measure of predictive, active sampling in visual perception. J Vis 2021; 21:12. [PMID: 34283203 PMCID: PMC8300052 DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.7.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
A key feature of visual processing in humans is the use of saccadic eye movements to look around the environment. Saccades are typically used to bring relevant information, which is glimpsed with extrafoveal vision, into the high-resolution fovea for further processing. With the exception of some unusual circumstances, such as the first fixation when walking into a room, our saccades are mainly guided based on this extrafoveal preview. In contrast, the majority of experimental studies in vision science have investigated "passive" behavioral and neural responses to suddenly appearing and often temporally or spatially unpredictable stimuli. As reviewed here, a growing number of studies have investigated visual processing of objects under more natural viewing conditions in which observers move their eyes to a stationary stimulus, visible previously in extrafoveal vision, during each trial. These studies demonstrate that the extrafoveal preview has a profound influence on visual processing of objects, both for behavior and neural activity. Starting from the preview effect in reading research we follow subsequent developments in vision research more generally and finally argue that taking such evidence seriously leads to a reconceptualization of the nature of human visual perception that incorporates the strong influence of prediction and action on sensory processing. We review theoretical perspectives on visual perception under naturalistic viewing conditions, including theories of active vision, active sensing, and sampling. Although the extrafoveal preview paradigm has already provided useful information about the timing of, and potential mechanisms for, the close interaction of the oculomotor and visual systems while reading and in natural scenes, the findings thus far also raise many new questions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Huber-Huber
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, The Netherlands
- CIMeC, University of Trento, Italy
| | - Antimo Buonocore
- Werner Reichardt Centre for Integrative Neuroscience, Tübingen University, Tübingen, BW, Germany
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Tübingen University, Tübingen, BW, Germany
| | - David Melcher
- CIMeC, University of Trento, Italy
- Division of Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, UAE
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Zhou W, Wang A, Yan M. Eye movements and the perceptual span among skilled Uighur readers. Vision Res 2021; 182:20-26. [PMID: 33578075 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2021.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we explored the perceptual span of skilled Uighur readers during their natural reading of sentences. The Uighur script is based on Arabic letters and it runs horizontally from right to left, offering a test to understand the effect of text direction. We utilized the gaze contingent moving window paradigm, in which legible text was provided only within a window that moved in synchrony with readers' eyes while all other letters were masked. The size of the window was manipulated systematically to determine the smallest size that allowed readers to show normal reading behaviors. Comparisons of window conditions with the baseline condition showed that the Uighur readers reached asymptotic performance in reading speed and gaze duration when windows revealed at least five letters to the right and twelve letters to the left of the currently fixated one. The present study is the first to document the size of the perceptual span in a horizontally leftwards running script. Cross-script comparisons with prior findings suggest that the size of the perceptual span for a certain writing system is likely influenced by its reading direction and visual complexity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhou
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Learning and Cognition, School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Aiping Wang
- School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Ming Yan
- Department of Psychology, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau; Center for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau.
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Vasilev MR, Yates M, Prueitt E, Slattery TJ. Parafoveal degradation during reading reduces preview costs only when it is not perceptually distinct. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2020; 74:254-276. [PMID: 32988313 PMCID: PMC8044602 DOI: 10.1177/1747021820959661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
There is a growing understanding that the parafoveal preview effect during reading may represent a combination of preview benefits and preview costs due to interference from parafoveal masks. It has been suggested that visually degrading the parafoveal masks may reduce their costs, but adult readers were later shown to be highly sensitive to degraded display changes. Four experiments examined how preview benefits and preview costs are influenced by the perception of distinct parafoveal degradation at the target word location. Participants read sentences with four preview types (identity, orthographic, phonological, and letter-mask preview) and two levels of visual degradation (0% vs. 20%). The distinctiveness of the target word degradation was either eliminated by degrading all words in the sentence (Experiments 1a–2a) or remained present, as in previous research (Experiments 1b–2b). Degrading the letter masks resulted in a reduction in preview costs, but only when all words in the sentence were degraded. When degradation at the target word location was perceptually distinct, it induced costs of its own, even for orthographically and phonologically related previews. These results confirm previous reports that traditional parafoveal masks introduce preview costs that overestimate the size of the true benefit. However, they also show that parafoveal degradation has the unintended consequence of introducing additional costs when participants are aware of distinct degradation on the target word. Parafoveal degradation appears to be easily perceived and may temporarily orient attention away from the reading task, thus delaying word processing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark Yates
- Department of Psychology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USA
| | - Ethan Prueitt
- Department of Psychology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USA
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Parafoveal pre-processing in children reading English: The importance of external letters. Psychon Bull Rev 2020; 28:197-208. [PMID: 32918232 PMCID: PMC7870634 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-020-01806-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Although previous research has demonstrated that for adults external letters of words are more important than internal letters for lexical processing during reading, no comparable research has been conducted with children. This experiment explored, using the boundary paradigm during silent sentence reading, whether parafoveal pre-processing in English is more affected by the manipulation of external letters or internal letters, and whether this differs between skilled adult and beginner child readers. Six previews were generated: identity (e.g., monkey); external letter manipulations where either the beginning three letters of the word were substituted (e.g., rackey) or the last three letters of the word were substituted (e.g., monhig); internal letter manipulations; e.g., machey, mochiy); and an unrelated control condition (e.g., rachig). Results indicate that both adults and children undertook pre-processing of words in their entirety in the parafovea, and that the manipulation of external letters in preview was more harmful to participants' parafoveal pre-processing than internal letters. The data also suggest developmental change in the time course of pre-processing, with children's pre-processing delayed compared to that of adults. These results not only provide further evidence for the importance of external letters to parafoveal processing and lexical identification for adults, but also demonstrate that such findings can be extended to children.
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Fernandez LB, Scheepers C, Allen SEM. The impact of uninformative parafoveal masks on L1 and late L2 speakers. J Eye Mov Res 2020; 13. [PMID: 33828813 PMCID: PMC8013785 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.6.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Much reading research has found that informative parafoveal masks lead to a reading benefit for native speakers (see 1). However, little reading research has tested the impact of uninformative parafoveal masks during reading. Additionally, parafoveal processing research is primarily restricted to native speakers. In the current study we manipulated the type of uninformative preview using a gaze contingent boundary paradigm with a group of L1 English speakers and a group of late L2 English speakers (L1 German). We were interested in how different types of uninformative masks impact on parafoveal processing, whether L1 and L2 speakers are similarly impacted, and whether they are sensitive to parafoveally viewed language-specific sub-lexical orthographic information. We manipulated six types of uninformative masks to test these objectives: an Identical, English pseudo-word, German pseudo-word, illegal string of letters, series of X's, and a blank mask. We found that X masks affect reading the most with slight graded differences across the other masks, L1 and L2 speakers are impacted similarly, and neither group is sensitive to sub-lexical orthographic information. Overall these data show that not all previews are equal, and research should be aware of the way uninformative masks affect reading behavior. Additionally, we hope that future research starts to approach models of eye-movement behavior during reading from not only a monolingual but also from a multilingual perspective.
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Blythe HI, Dickins JH, Kennedy CR, Liversedge SP. The role of phonology in lexical access in teenagers with a history of dyslexia. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0229934. [PMID: 32182253 PMCID: PMC7077824 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0229934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined phonological recoding during silent sentence reading in teenagers with a history of dyslexia and their typically developing peers. Two experiments are reported in which participants' eye movements were recorded as they read sentences containing correctly spelled words (e.g., church), pseudohomophones (e.g., cherch), and spelling controls (e.g., charch). In Experiment 1 we examined foveal processing of the target word/nonword stimuli, and in Experiment 2 we examined parafoveal pre-processing. There were four participant groups-older teenagers with a history of dyslexia, older typically developing teenagers who were matched for age, younger typically developing teenagers who were matched for reading level, and younger teenagers with a history of dyslexia. All four participant groups showed a pseudohomophone advantage, both from foveal processing and parafoveal pre-processing, indicating that teenagers with a history of dyslexia engage in phonological recoding for lexical identification during silent sentence reading in a comparable manner to their typically developing peers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazel I. Blythe
- Department of Psychology, Northumbria University, Newcastle, United Kingdom
| | | | - Colin R. Kennedy
- Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Simon P. Liversedge
- School of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
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Degno F, Liversedge SP. Eye Movements and Fixation-Related Potentials in Reading: A Review. Vision (Basel) 2020; 4:E11. [PMID: 32028566 PMCID: PMC7157570 DOI: 10.3390/vision4010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The present review is addressed to researchers in the field of reading and psycholinguistics who are both familiar with and new to co-registration research of eye movements (EMs) and fixation related-potentials (FRPs) in reading. At the outset, we consider a conundrum relating to timing discrepancies between EM and event related potential (ERP) effects. We then consider the extent to which the co-registration approach might allow us to overcome this and thereby discriminate between formal theoretical and computational accounts of reading. We then describe three phases of co-registration research before evaluating the existing body of such research in reading. The current, ongoing phase of co-registration research is presented in comprehensive tables which provide a detailed summary of the existing findings. The thorough appraisal of the published studies allows us to engage with issues such as the reliability of FRP components as correlates of cognitive processing in reading and the advantages of analysing both data streams (i.e., EMs and FRPs) simultaneously relative to each alone, as well as the current, and limited, understanding of the relationship between EM and FRP measures. Finally, we consider future directions and in particular the potential of analytical methods involving deconvolution and the potential of measurement of brain oscillatory activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Degno
- School of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Marsh Ln, Preston PR1 2HE, UK;
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Yan M, Wang A, Song H, Kliegl R. Parafoveal processing of phonology and semantics during the reading of Korean sentences. Cognition 2019; 193:104009. [PMID: 31295626 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2018] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The present study sets out to address two fundamental questions in the reading of continuous texts: Whether semantic and phonological information from upcoming words can be accessed during natural reading. In the present study we investigated parafoveal processing during the reading of Korean sentences, manipulating semantic and phonological information from parafoveal preview words. In addition to the first evidence for a semantic preview effect in Korean, we found that Korean readers have stronger and more long-lasting phonological than semantic activation from parafoveal words in second-pass reading. The present study provides an example that human mind can flexibly adjust processing priority to different types of information based on the linguistic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Yan
- Department of Psychology, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau.
| | - Aiping Wang
- School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Hosu Song
- School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Reinhold Kliegl
- Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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Himmelstoss NA, Schuster S, Hutzler F, Moran R, Hawelka S. Co-registration of eye movements and neuroimaging for studying contextual predictions in natural reading. LANGUAGE, COGNITION AND NEUROSCIENCE 2019; 35:595-612. [PMID: 32656295 PMCID: PMC7324136 DOI: 10.1080/23273798.2019.1616102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Sixteen years ago, Sereno and Rayner (2003. Measuring word recognition in reading: eye movements and event-related potentials. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(11), 489-493) illustrated how "by means of review and comparison" eye movement (EM) and event-related potential (ERP) studies may advance our understanding of visual word recognition. Attempts to simultaneously record EMs and ERPs soon followed. Recently, this co-registration approach has also been transferred to fMRI and oscillatory EEG. With experimental settings close to natural reading, co-registration enables us to directly integrate insights from EM and neuroimaging studies. This should extend current experimental paradigms by moving the field towards studying sentence-level processing including effects of context and parafoveal preview. This article will introduce the basic principles and applications of co-registration and selectively review how this approach may shed light on one of the most controversially discussed issues in reading research, contextual predictions in online language processing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarah Schuster
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Florian Hutzler
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Rosalyn Moran
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Stefan Hawelka
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
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Parafoveal processing of inflectional morphology in Russian: A within-word boundary-change paradigm. Vision Res 2019; 158:1-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2019.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 01/12/2019] [Accepted: 01/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Spill the load: Mixed evidence for a foveal load effect, reliable evidence for a spillover effect in eye-movement control during reading. Atten Percept Psychophys 2019; 81:1442-1453. [PMID: 30843176 PMCID: PMC6647363 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-019-01689-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
It has been hypothesized that the processing difficulty of the fixated word (i.e., "foveal load") modulates the amount of parafoveal preprocessing of the next word. Evidence for the hypothesis has been provided by the application of parafoveal masks within the boundary paradigm. Other studies that applied alternative means of manipulating the parafoveal preview (i.e., visual degradation) could not replicate the effect of foveal load. The present study examined the effect of foveal load by directly comparing the application of parafoveal masks (Exp. 1) with the alternative manipulation of visually degrading the parafoveal preview (Exp. 2) in adult readers. Contrary to expectation, we did not find the foveal-load interaction in the first experiment with traditional letter masks. We did, however, find the expected interaction in the second experiment with visually degraded previews. Both experiments revealed a spillover effect indicating that the processing of a word is not (always) fully completed when the reader already fixates the next word (i.e., processing "spills over" to the next word). The implications for models of eye-movement control in reading are discussed.
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Hutzler F, Schuster S, Marx C, Hawelka S. An investigation of parafoveal masks with the incremental boundary paradigm. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0203013. [PMID: 30817789 PMCID: PMC6394947 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Most of what we know about parafoveal preprocessing during reading is based on the boundary paradigm in combination with parafoveal masks as a presumably neutral baseline condition. Recent evidence questions the neutrality of the baseline condition by showing that parafoveal masks inflict preview costs. Using a novel, incremental boundary paradigm we studied the effect of parafoveal masks. Manipulating the salience of parafoveal previews, we found that increasing salience of the masks resulted in increasingly longer fixation times on target words, but also on pretarget words-suggesting preview costs. We conclude that the hidden preview costs of parafoveal masks in the classical boundary paradigm inflate the processing times for the baseline condition and hence lead to an overestimation of the preview benefit. Thus, the present study questions the validity of some of the conclusions drawn on the basis of the classical boundary paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Hutzler
- Paris-Lodron-University of Salzburg, Department of Psychology, Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Sarah Schuster
- Paris-Lodron-University of Salzburg, Department of Psychology, Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Christina Marx
- Paris-Lodron-University of Salzburg, Department of Psychology, Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Stefan Hawelka
- Paris-Lodron-University of Salzburg, Department of Psychology, Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Salzburg, Austria
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18
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Return-sweep saccades during reading in adults and children. Vision Res 2019; 155:35-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2018.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Revised: 12/08/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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19
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Warrington KL, McGowan VA, Paterson KB, White SJ. Effects of aging, word frequency, and text stimulus quality on reading across the adult lifespan: Evidence from eye movements. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018; 44:1714-1729. [PMID: 29672115 PMCID: PMC6233613 DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Reductions in stimulus quality may disrupt the reading performance of older adults more when compared with young adults because of sensory declines that begin early in middle age. However, few studies have investigated adult age differences in the effects of stimulus quality on reading, and none have examined how this affects lexical processing and eye movement control. Accordingly, we report two experiments that examine the effects of reduced stimulus quality on the eye movements of young (18–24 years), middle-aged (41–51 years), and older (65+ years) adult readers. In Experiment 1, participants read sentences that contained a high- or low-frequency critical word and that were presented normally or with contrast reduced so that words appeared faint. Experiment 2 further investigated effects of reduced stimulus quality using a gaze-contingent technique to present upcoming text normally or with contrast reduced. Typical patterns of age-related reading difficulty (e.g., slower reading, more regressions) were observed in both experiments. In addition, eye movements were disrupted more for older than younger adults when all text (Experiment 1) or just upcoming text (Experiment 2) appeared faint. Moreover, there was an interaction between stimulus quality and word frequency (Experiment 1), such that readers fixated faint low-frequency words for disproportionately longer. Crucially, this effect was similar across all age groups. Thus, although older readers suffer more from reduced stimulus quality, this additional difficulty primarily affects their visual processing of text. These findings have important implications for understanding the role of stimulus quality on reading behavior across the lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Victoria A McGowan
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester
| | - Kevin B Paterson
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester
| | - Sarah J White
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester
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20
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Parafoveal preview effects from word N + 1 and word N + 2 during reading: A critical review and Bayesian meta-analysis. Psychon Bull Rev 2018; 24:666-689. [PMID: 27576520 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-016-1147-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The use of gaze-contingent display techniques to study reading has shown that readers attend not only the currently fixated word, but also the word to the right of the current fixation. However, a critical look at the literature shows that a number of questions cannot be readily answered from the available literature reviews on the topic. First, there is no consensus as to whether readers also attend the second word to the right of fixation. Second, it is not clear whether parafoveal processing is more efficient in languages such as Chinese. Third, it is not well understood whether the measured effects are confounded by the properties of the parafoveal mask. In the present study, we addressed these issues by performing a Bayesian meta-analysis of 93 experiments that used the boundary paradigm (Rayner, Cognitive Psychology, 7, 65-81. doi: 10.1016/0010-028590005-5 , 1975). We describe three main findings: (1) The advantage of previewing the second word to the right is modest in size and likely is not centered on zero; (2) Chinese readers do seem to make more efficient use of parafoveal processing, but this is mostly evident in gaze durations; and (3) there are interference effects associated with using different parafoveal masks that roughly increase when the mask is less word-like.
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21
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Schotter ER. Reading Ahead by Hedging Our Bets on Seeing the Future. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.plm.2018.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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22
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Parker AJ, Kirkby JA, Slattery TJ. Predictability effects during reading in the absence of parafoveal preview. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2017.1340303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adam J. Parker
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Dorset, UK
| | - Julie A. Kirkby
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Dorset, UK
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23
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Stoops A, Christianson K. Parafoveal processing of inflectional morphology on Russian nouns. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2017.1310109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Stoops
- Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, USA
| | - Kiel Christianson
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
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24
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Kornrumpf B, Dimigen O, Sommer W. Lateralization of posterior alpha EEG reflects the distribution of spatial attention during saccadic reading. Psychophysiology 2017; 54:809-823. [DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Benthe Kornrumpf
- Institut für Psychologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin; Berlin Germany
| | - Olaf Dimigen
- Institut für Psychologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin; Berlin Germany
| | - Werner Sommer
- Institut für Psychologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin; Berlin Germany
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25
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Marx C, Hawelka S, Schuster S, Hutzler F. Foveal processing difficulty does not affect parafoveal preprocessing in young readers. Sci Rep 2017; 7:41602. [PMID: 28139718 PMCID: PMC5282480 DOI: 10.1038/srep41602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent evidence suggested that parafoveal preprocessing develops early during reading acquisition, that is, young readers profit from valid parafoveal information and exhibit a resultant preview benefit. For young readers, however, it is unknown whether the processing demands of the currently fixated word modulate the extent to which the upcoming word is parafoveally preprocessed - as it has been postulated (for adult readers) by the foveal load hypothesis. The present study used the novel incremental boundary technique to assess whether 4th and 6th Graders exhibit an effect of foveal load. Furthermore, we attempted to distinguish the foveal load effect from the spillover effect. These effects are hard to differentiate with respect to the expected pattern of results, but are conceptually different. The foveal load effect is supposed to reflect modulations of the extent of parafoveal preprocessing, whereas the spillover effect reflects the ongoing processing of the previous word whilst the reader's fixation is already on the next word. The findings revealed that the young readers did not exhibit an effect of foveal load, but a substantial spillover effect. The implications for previous studies with adult readers and for models of eye movement control in reading are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Marx
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Stefan Hawelka
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Sarah Schuster
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Florian Hutzler
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
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26
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Are the final letters of a parafoveal word used by developing readers? Evidence from a single word reading task. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2016.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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27
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Schotter ER, Leinenger M. Reversed preview benefit effects: Forced fixations emphasize the importance of parafoveal vision for efficient reading. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2016; 42:2039-2067. [PMID: 27732044 DOI: 10.1037/xhp0000270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Current theories of eye movement control in reading posit that processing of an upcoming parafoveal preview word is used to facilitate processing of that word once it is fixated (i.e., as a foveal target word). This preview benefit is demonstrated by shorter fixation durations in the case of valid (i.e., identical or linguistically similar) compared with invalid (i.e., dissimilar) preview conditions. However, we suggest that processing of the preview can directly influence fixation behavior on the target, independent of similarity between them. In Experiment 1, unrelated high and low frequency words were used as orthogonally crossed previews and targets and we observed a reversed preview benefit for low frequency targets-shorter fixation durations with an invalid, higher frequency preview compared with a valid, low frequency preview. In Experiment 2, the target words were replaced with orthographically legal and illegal nonwords and we found a similar effect of preview frequency on fixation durations on the targets, as well as a bimodal distribution in the illegal nonword target conditions with a denser early peak for high than low frequency previews. In Experiment 3, nonwords were used as previews for high and low frequency targets, replicating standard findings that "denied" preview increases fixation durations and the influence of target properties. These effects can be explained by forced fixations, cases in which fixations on the target were shortened as a consequence of the timing of word recognition of the preview relative to the time course of saccade programming to that word from the prior one. That is, the preview word was (at least partially) recognized so that it should have been skipped, but the word could not be skipped because the saccade to that word was in a nonlabile stage. In these cases, the system preinitiates the subsequent saccade off the upcoming word to the following word and the intervening fixation is short. (PsycINFO Database Record
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28
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Vasilev MR, Angele B. Parafoveal preview effects from word N + 1 and word N + 2 during reading: A critical review and Bayesian meta-analysis. Psychon Bull Rev 2016. [PMID: 27576520 DOI: 10.1016/0010-028590005-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The use of gaze-contingent display techniques to study reading has shown that readers attend not only the currently fixated word, but also the word to the right of the current fixation. However, a critical look at the literature shows that a number of questions cannot be readily answered from the available literature reviews on the topic. First, there is no consensus as to whether readers also attend the second word to the right of fixation. Second, it is not clear whether parafoveal processing is more efficient in languages such as Chinese. Third, it is not well understood whether the measured effects are confounded by the properties of the parafoveal mask. In the present study, we addressed these issues by performing a Bayesian meta-analysis of 93 experiments that used the boundary paradigm (Rayner, Cognitive Psychology, 7, 65-81. doi: 10.1016/0010-028590005-5 , 1975). We describe three main findings: (1) The advantage of previewing the second word to the right is modest in size and likely is not centered on zero; (2) Chinese readers do seem to make more efficient use of parafoveal processing, but this is mostly evident in gaze durations; and (3) there are interference effects associated with using different parafoveal masks that roughly increase when the mask is less word-like.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin R Vasilev
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole House, Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, BH12 5BB, Dorset, UK.
| | - Bernhard Angele
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole House, Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, BH12 5BB, Dorset, UK
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29
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Marx C, Hutzler F, Schuster S, Hawelka S. On the Development of Parafoveal Preprocessing: Evidence from the Incremental Boundary Paradigm. Front Psychol 2016; 7:514. [PMID: 27148123 PMCID: PMC4830847 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Parafoveal preprocessing of upcoming words and the resultant preview benefit are key aspects of fluent reading. Evidence regarding the development of parafoveal preprocessing during reading acquisition, however, is scarce. The present developmental (cross-sectional) eye tracking study estimated the magnitude of parafoveal preprocessing of beginning readers with a novel variant of the classical boundary paradigm. Additionally, we assessed the association of parafoveal preprocessing with several reading-related psychometric measures. The participants were children learning to read the regular German orthography with about 1, 3, and 5 years of formal reading instruction (Grade 2, 4, and 6, respectively). We found evidence of parafoveal preprocessing in each Grade. However, an effective use of parafoveal information was related to the individual reading fluency of the participants (i.e., the reading rate expressed as words-per-minute) which substantially overlapped between the Grades. The size of the preview benefit was furthermore associated with the children’s performance in rapid naming tasks and with their performance in a pseudoword reading task. The latter task assessed the children’s efficiency in phonological decoding and our findings show that the best decoders exhibited the largest preview benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Marx
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria
| | - Florian Hutzler
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria
| | - Sarah Schuster
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria
| | - Stefan Hawelka
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria
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30
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Liversedge SP, Schroeder S, Hyönä J, Rayner K. Emerging issues in developmental eye-tracking research: Insights from the workshop in Hannover, October 2013. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2015.1053487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon P. Liversedge
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton , Highfield Campus, SO17 1BJ Southampton, UK
| | - Sascha Schroeder
- Department of Psychology, Max Planck Institute , Berlin, Germany
| | - Jukka Hyönä
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku , Turku, Finland
| | - Keith Rayner
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, CA, USA
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31
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Schroeder S, Hyönä J, Liversedge SP. Developmental eye-tracking research in reading: Introduction to the special issue. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2015.1046877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Schroeder
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development, MPRG Reading Education and Development (REaD) , Berlin, Germany
| | - Jukka Hyönä
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku , Turku, Finland
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32
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Yan M. Visually complex foveal words increase the amount of parafoveal information acquired. Vision Res 2015; 111:91-6. [PMID: 25911574 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2015.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Revised: 03/21/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This study investigates the effect of foveal load (i.e., processing difficulty of currently fixated words) on parafoveal information processing. Contrary to the commonly accepted view that high foveal load leads to reduced parafoveal processing efficiency, results of the present study showed that increasing foveal visual (but not linguistic) processing load actually increased the amount of parafoveal information acquired, presumably due to the fact that longer fixation duration on the pretarget word provided more time for parafoveal processing of the target word. It is therefore proposed in the present study that foveal linguistic processing load is not the only factor that determines parafoveal processing; preview time (afforded by foveal word visual processing load) may jointly influence parafoveal processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Yan
- Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24/25, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany.
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