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Zou J, Zhang Y, Li J, Tian X, Ding N. Human attention during goal-directed reading comprehension relies on task optimization. eLife 2023; 12:RP87197. [PMID: 38032825 PMCID: PMC10688971 DOI: 10.7554/elife.87197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The computational principles underlying attention allocation in complex goal-directed tasks remain elusive. Goal-directed reading, that is, reading a passage to answer a question in mind, is a common real-world task that strongly engages attention. Here, we investigate what computational models can explain attention distribution in this complex task. We show that the reading time on each word is predicted by the attention weights in transformer-based deep neural networks (DNNs) optimized to perform the same reading task. Eye tracking further reveals that readers separately attend to basic text features and question-relevant information during first-pass reading and rereading, respectively. Similarly, text features and question relevance separately modulate attention weights in shallow and deep DNN layers. Furthermore, when readers scan a passage without a question in mind, their reading time is predicted by DNNs optimized for a word prediction task. Therefore, we offer a computational account of how task optimization modulates attention distribution during real-world reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiajie Zou
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Sciences, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
- Nanhu Brain-computer Interface InstituteHangzhouChina
| | - Yuran Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Sciences, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Jialu Li
- Division of Arts and Sciences, New York University ShanghaiShanghaiChina
| | - Xing Tian
- Division of Arts and Sciences, New York University ShanghaiShanghaiChina
| | - Nai Ding
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Sciences, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
- Nanhu Brain-computer Interface InstituteHangzhouChina
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2
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Justino J, Kolinsky R. Eye movements during reading in beginning and skilled readers: Impact of reading level or physiological maturation? Acta Psychol (Amst) 2023; 236:103927. [PMID: 37126894 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We begin by presenting and examining relevant data in the literature on eye movements in reading, from childhood to adulthood. In particular, we discuss the differences found in eye movements during reading between children in different age groups and with different reading levels and skilled adult readers in terms of word recognition and sentence processing. We then critically discuss two hypotheses that account for the differences between children and adults' eye movement during reading: one being reading age itself - the changes in eye movement patterns in reading are regulated by the level of reading proficiency and its automatization - and the other being the role of maturation of oculomotor control and, consequently, its possible changes in eye movement patterns during reading. Finally, we list gaps in the research field and suggest that future research will benefit from investigating eye movements during reading in ex-illiterate adults who are in the process of learning to read in order to isolate both reading and maturational factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Justino
- Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique - FNRS (FRS-FNRS), Belgium; Unité de Recherche en Neurosciences Cognitives (Unescog/CRCN), Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium.
| | - Régine Kolinsky
- Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique - FNRS (FRS-FNRS), Belgium; Unité de Recherche en Neurosciences Cognitives (Unescog/CRCN), Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium.
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3
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Franzen L, Stark Z, Johnson AP. Individuals with dyslexia use a different visual sampling strategy to read text. Sci Rep 2021; 11:6449. [PMID: 33742007 PMCID: PMC7979812 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84945-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals with dyslexia present with reading-related deficits including inaccurate and/or less fluent word recognition and poor decoding abilities. Slow reading speed and worse text comprehension can occur as secondary consequences of these deficits. Reports of visual symptoms such as atypical eye movements during reading gave rise to a search for these deficits' underlying mechanisms. This study sought to replicate established behavioral deficits in reading and cognitive processing speed while investigating their underlying mechanisms in more detail by developing a comprehensive profile of eye movements specific to reading in adult dyslexia. Using a validated standardized reading assessment, our findings confirm a reading speed deficit among adults with dyslexia. We observed different eye movements in readers with dyslexia across numerous eye movement metrics including the duration of a stop (i.e., fixation), the length of jumps (i.e., saccades), and the number of times a reader's eyes expressed a jump atypical for reading. We conclude that individuals with dyslexia visually sample written information in a laborious and more effortful manner that is fundamentally different from those without dyslexia. Our findings suggest a mix of aberrant cognitive linguistic and oculomotor processes being present in adults with dyslexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Léon Franzen
- Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, Canada.
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
| | - Zoey Stark
- Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, Canada
| | - Aaron P Johnson
- Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, Canada
- CRIR/Lethbridge-Layton-Mackay Centre de Réadaptation du CIUSSS du Centre-Ouest-de-l'Île-de-Montréal, Montréal, Canada
- Réseau de Recherche en Santé de La Vision, Montréal, Canada
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4
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Dias EC, Sheridan H, Martínez A, Sehatpour P, Silipo G, Rohrig S, Hochman A, Butler PD, Hoptman MJ, Revheim N, Javitt DC. Neurophysiological, Oculomotor, and Computational Modeling of Impaired Reading Ability in Schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2020; 47:97-107. [PMID: 32851415 PMCID: PMC7825085 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbaa107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia (Sz) is associated with deficits in fluent reading ability that compromise functional outcomes. Here, we utilize a combined eye-tracking, neurophysiological, and computational modeling approach to analyze underlying visual and oculomotor processes. Subjects included 26 Sz patients (SzP) and 26 healthy controls. Eye-tracking and electroencephalography data were acquired continuously during the reading of passages from the Gray Oral Reading Tests reading battery, permitting between-group evaluation of both oculomotor activity and fixation-related potentials (FRP). Schizophrenia patients showed a marked increase in time required per word (d = 1.3, P < .0001), reflecting both a moderate increase in fixation duration (d = .7, P = .026) and a large increase in the total saccade number (d = 1.6, P < .0001). Simulation models that incorporated alterations in both lower-level visual and oculomotor function as well as higher-level lexical processing performed better than models that assumed either deficit-type alone. In neurophysiological analyses, amplitude of the fixation-related P1 potential (P1f) was significantly reduced in SzP (d = .66, P = .013), reflecting reduced phase reset of ongoing theta-alpha band activity (d = .74, P = .019). In turn, P1f deficits significantly predicted increased saccade number both across groups (P = .017) and within SzP alone (P = .042). Computational and neurophysiological methods provide increasingly important approaches for investigating sensory contributions to impaired cognition during naturalistic processing in Sz. Here, we demonstrate deficits in reading rate that reflect both sensory/oculomotor- and semantic-level impairments and that manifest, respectively, as alterations in saccade number and fixation duration. Impaired P1f generation reflects impaired fixation-related reset of ongoing brain rhythms and suggests inefficient information processing within the early visual system as a basis for oculomotor dyscontrol during fluent reading in Sz.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa C Dias
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY,Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY,To whom correspondence should be addressed; 140 Old Orangeburg Rd, Building 35, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA; tel: 845-398-6541, fax: 845-398-6545,
| | - Heather Sheridan
- Department of Psychology, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY
| | - Antígona Martínez
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY,Division of Experimental Therapeutics, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - Pejman Sehatpour
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY,Division of Experimental Therapeutics, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - Gail Silipo
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY
| | - Stephanie Rohrig
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY
| | - Ayelet Hochman
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY
| | - Pamela D Butler
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY,Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Matthew J Hoptman
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY,Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Nadine Revheim
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY
| | - Daniel C Javitt
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY,Division of Experimental Therapeutics, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY
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5
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Liu T, Yuizono T. Mind Mapping Training's Effects on Reading Ability: Detection Based on Eye Tracking Sensors. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20164422. [PMID: 32784791 PMCID: PMC7472315 DOI: 10.3390/s20164422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
As a reading comprehension strategy, mind mapping has a positive influence on the development of students’ reading ability. However, how mind mapping affects reading ability has not been well documented. In this study, we used eye tracking sensors to explore mind mapping’s effects on reading ability. The participants were foreign language learning university students in Dalian city, China. One group received foreign language reading teaching integrated with mind mapping training (experimental group), and the other group received regular foreign language reading teaching (control group). We analyzed eye movement indicators, including fixation-related indicators (number of fixations, fixation frequency, and mean fixation duration), regression count, saccade amplitude, and pupil diameter. In addition, the analysis of heat maps and fixation trajectory maps, which are specific tool for visualization of eye movement data and intuitive analysis of reading process, were explained. The results show that the number of fixations, fixation frequency, mean fixation duration, and regression count in the experimental group were all lower than in the control group, and the pupil diameter was larger than in the control group. The heat map and fixation trajectory map show convergence, mostly focusing on the position of keywords and key sentences, with relatively large saccade amplitude and more information obtained by one gaze. Moreover, they had a higher skipping reading rate, which enhanced reading speed to obtain information accurately and quickly. These empirical results indicate that mind mapping training was an effective method for improving students’ reading ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Liu
- School of Knowledge Science, Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Nomi 923-1292, Japan;
- School of Foreign Languages, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian 116034, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-139-0408-6146
| | - Takaya Yuizono
- School of Knowledge Science, Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Nomi 923-1292, Japan;
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6
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Parker AJ, Kirkby JA, Slattery TJ. Undersweep fixations during reading in adults and children. J Exp Child Psychol 2020; 192:104788. [PMID: 31981751 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Return sweeps take a reader's fixation from the end of one line to the start of the next. Return sweeps frequently undershoot their target and are followed by a corrective saccade toward the left margin. The pauses prior to corrective saccades are typically considered to be uninvolved in linguistic processing. However, recent findings indicate that these undersweep fixations influence skilled adult readers' subsequent reading pass across the line and provide preview of line-initial words. The current research examined these effects in children. First, a children's reading corpus analysis revealed that words receiving an undersweep fixation were more likely skipped and received shorter gaze durations during a subsequent pass. Second, a novel eye movement experiment that directly compared adults' and children's eye movements indicated that, during an undersweep fixation, readers very briefly allocate their attention to the fixated word-as indicated by inhibition of return effects during a subsequent pass-prior to deploying attention toward the line-initial word. We argue that prior to the redeployment of attention, readers extract information at the point of fixation that facilitates later encoding and saccade targeting. Given similar patterns of results for adults and children, we conclude that the mechanisms controlling for oculomotor coordination and attention necessary for reading across line boundaries are established from a very early point in reading development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J Parker
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX2 6GG, UK.
| | - Julie A Kirkby
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science & Technology, Bournemouth University, Talbot Campus, Poole BH12 5BB, UK
| | - Timothy J Slattery
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science & Technology, Bournemouth University, Talbot Campus, Poole BH12 5BB, UK
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7
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Kuperman V, Matsuki K, Van Dyke JA. Contributions of reader- and text-level characteristics to eye-movement patterns during passage reading. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018; 44:1687-1713. [PMID: 30024266 PMCID: PMC6234076 DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The present research presents a novel method for investigating how characteristics of texts (words, sentences, and passages) and individuals (verbal and general cognitive skills) jointly influence eye-movement patterns over the time-course of reading, as well as comprehension accuracy. Fifty-one proficient readers read passages of varying complexity from the Gray Oral Reading Test, while their eye-movements were recorded. Participants also completed a large battery of tests assessing various components of reading comprehension ability (vocabulary size, decoding, phonological awareness, and experience with print), as well as general cognitive and executive skills. We used the Random Forests nonparametric regression technique to simultaneously estimate relative importance of all predictors. This method enabled us to trace the temporal engagement of individual predictors and entire predictor groups on eye-movements during reading, while avoiding the problems of model overfitting and collinearity, typical of parametric regression methods. Our findings both confirmed well-established results of prior research and pointed to a space of hypotheses that is as yet unexplored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Kuperman
- Department of Linguistics and Languages, McMaster University
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8
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Whitford V, Joanisse MF. Do eye movements reveal differences between monolingual and bilingual children's first-language and second-language reading? A focus on word frequency effects. J Exp Child Psychol 2018; 173:318-337. [PMID: 29800793 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Revised: 11/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
An extensive body of research has examined reading acquisition and performance in monolingual children. Surprisingly, however, much less is known about reading in bilingual children, who outnumber monolingual children globally. Here, we address this important imbalance in the literature by employing eye movement recordings to examine both global (i.e., text-level) and local (i.e., word-level) aspects of monolingual and bilingual children's reading performance across their first-language (L1) and second-language (L2). We also had a specific focus on lexical accessibility, indexed by word frequency effects. We had three main findings. First, bilingual children displayed reduced global and local L1 reading performance relative to monolingual children, including larger L1 word frequency effects. Second, bilingual children displayed reduced global and local L2 versus L1 reading performance, including larger L2 word frequency effects. Third, both groups of children displayed reduced global and local reading performance relative to adult comparison groups (across their known languages), including larger word frequency effects. Notably, our first finding was not captured by traditional offline measures of reading, such as standardized tests, suggesting that these measures may lack the sensitivity to detect such nuanced between-group differences in reading performance. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that bilingual children's simultaneous exposure to two reading systems leads to eye movement reading behavior that differs from that of monolingual children and has important consequences for how lexical information is accessed and integrated in both languages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Whitford
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas 79902, USA.
| | - Marc F Joanisse
- Department of Psychology, Brain and Mind Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 3K7, Canada
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9
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Grainger J. Orthographic processing: A ‘mid-level’ vision of reading: The 44th Sir Frederic Bartlett Lecture. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 71:335-359. [DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2017.1314515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
I will describe how orthographic processing acts as a central interface between visual and linguistic processing during reading, and as such can be considered to be the ‘mid-level vision’ of reading research. In order to make this case, I first summarize the evidence in favour of letter-based word recognition before examining work investigating how orthographic similarities among words influence single word reading. I describe how evidence gradually accumulated against traditional measures of orthographic similarity and the associated theories of orthographic processing, forcing a reconsideration of how letter-position information is represented by skilled readers. Then, I present the theoretical framework that was developed to explain these findings, with a focus on the distinction between location-specific and location-invariant orthographic representations. Finally, I describe work extending this theoretical framework in two main directions: first, to the realm of reading development, with the aim to specify the key changes in the processing of letters and letter strings that accompany successful learning to read, and second, to the realm of sentence reading, in order to specify how orthographic information can be processed across several words in parallel, and how skilled readers keep track of which letters belong to which words.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Grainger
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, Aix-Marseille University & CNRS, Marseille, France
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10
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McGowan VA, Reichle ED. The "risky" reading strategy revisited: New simulations using E-Z Reader. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 71:179-189. [PMID: 28426352 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2017.1307424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Eye-movement studies have demonstrated that, relative to college-aged readers, older readers of alphabetic languages like English and German tend to read more slowly, making more frequent and longer fixations and longer saccades, and skipping more words, but also making more frequent regressions. These findings have led to suggestions that older readers either adopt a "risky" strategy of using context to "guess" words as a way of compensating for slower rates of lexical processing, or have a smaller and more asymmetrical perceptual span. Unfortunately, neither of these hypotheses seemingly explains more recent observations that older readers of Chinese seem to adopt a more "conservative" strategy, making shorter saccades and skipping less often. In this paper, we use the E-Z Reader model of eye-movement control to examine several possible accounts of the differences between college-aged and older readers of both alphabetic and non-alphabetic languages. These simulations re-confirm that the "risky" strategy may be sufficient to explain age-related differences in reader's eye movements, with older readers of English versus Chinese being, respectively, more versus less inclined to guess upcoming words. The implications of these results for aging, reading, and models of eye-movement control are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria A McGowan
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, & Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Erik D Reichle
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
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11
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Slattery TJ, Yates M. Word skipping: Effects of word length, predictability, spelling and reading skill. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 71:250-259. [PMID: 28856970 PMCID: PMC6159777 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2017.1310264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Readers’ eyes often skip over words as they read. Skipping rates are largely
determined by word length; short words are skipped more than long words.
However, the predictability of a word in context also impacts skipping rates.
Rayner, Slattery, Drieghe and Liversedge reported an effect of predictability on
word skipping for even long words (10-13 characters) that extend beyond the word
identification span. Recent research suggests that better readers and spellers
have an enhanced perceptual span. We explored that whether reading and spelling
skill interact with word length and predictability to impact word skipping rates
in a large sample (N = 92) of average and poor adult readers.
Participants read the items from Rayner et al., while their eye movements were
recorded. Spelling skill (zSpell) was assessed using the dictation and
recognition tasks developed by Sally Andrews and colleagues. Reading skill
(zRead) was assessed from reading speed (words per minute) and comprehension
accuracy of three 120 word passages each with 10 comprehension questions. We fit
linear mixed models to the target gaze duration data and generalized linear
mixed models to the target word skipping data. Target word gaze durations were
significantly predicted by zRead, while the skipping likelihoods were
significantly predicted by zSpell. Additionally, for gaze durations, zRead
significantly interacted with word predictability as better readers relied less
on context to support word processing. These effects are discussed in relation
to the lexical quality hypothesis and eye movement models of reading.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark Yates
- Psychology Department, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USA
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12
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13
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Using support vector machines to identify literacy skills: Evidence from eye movements. Behav Res Methods 2016; 49:887-895. [DOI: 10.3758/s13428-016-0748-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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14
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Sheridan H, Reichle ED. An Analysis of the Time Course of Lexical Processing During Reading. Cogn Sci 2016; 40:522-53. [PMID: 25939443 PMCID: PMC5122144 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 12/28/2014] [Accepted: 12/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Reingold, Reichle, Glaholt, and Sheridan (2012) reported a gaze-contingent eye-movement experiment in which survival-curve analyses were used to examine the effects of word frequency, the availability of parafoveal preview, and initial fixation location on the time course of lexical processing. The key results of these analyses suggest that lexical processing begins very rapidly (after approximately 120 ms) and is supported by substantial parafoveal processing (more than 100 ms). Because it is not immediately obvious that these results are congruent with the theoretical assumption that words are processed and identified in a strictly serial manner, we attempted to simulate the experiment using the E-Z Reader model of eye-movement control (Reichle, 2011). These simulations were largely consistent with the empirical results, suggesting that parafoveal processing does play an important functional role by allowing lexical processing to occur rapidly enough to mediate direct control over when the eyes move during reading.
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15
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Grainger J, Dufau S, Ziegler JC. A Vision of Reading. Trends Cogn Sci 2016; 20:171-179. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2015.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 12/28/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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16
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Liversedge SP, Schroeder S, Hyönä J, Rayner K. Emerging issues in developmental eye-tracking research: Insights from the workshop in Hannover, October 2013. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2015.1053487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon P. Liversedge
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton , Highfield Campus, SO17 1BJ Southampton, UK
| | - Sascha Schroeder
- Department of Psychology, Max Planck Institute , Berlin, Germany
| | - Jukka Hyönä
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku , Turku, Finland
| | - Keith Rayner
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, CA, USA
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17
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Schroeder S, Hyönä J, Liversedge SP. Developmental eye-tracking research in reading: Introduction to the special issue. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2015.1046877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Schroeder
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development, MPRG Reading Education and Development (REaD) , Berlin, Germany
| | - Jukka Hyönä
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku , Turku, Finland
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