Trogocytosis and fratricide killing impede MSLN-directed CAR T cell functionality

Engineered T cells for Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major contributor to global cancer incidence and mortality. Conventional treatments have limitations; hence, innovative approaches are imperative. Recent advancements in cancer research have led to the development of personalized targeted therapies and immunotherapies. Immunotherapy, in particular, T cell-based therapies, exhibited to be promising in enhancing cancer treatment outcomes. This review focuses on the landscape of engineered T cells as a potential option for the treatment of CRC. It highlights the approaches, challenges and current advancements in this field. As the understanding of molecular mechanisms increases, engineered T cells hold great potential in revolutionizing cancer treatment. To fully explore their safety efficacy in improving patient outcomes, further research and clinical trials are necessary.

Antigen escape in CAR-T cell therapy: Mechanisms and overcoming strategies

Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy has shown promise in treating hematological malignancies and certain solid tumors. However, its efficacy is often hindered by negative relapses resulting from antigen escape. This review firstly elucidates the mechanisms underlying antigen escape during CAR-T cell therapy, including the enrichment of pre-existing target-negative tumor clones, antigen gene mutations or alternative splicing, deficits in antigen processing, antigen redistribution, lineage switch, epitope masking, and trogocytosis-mediated antigen loss. Furthermore, we summarize various strategies to overcome antigen escape, evaluate their advantages and limitations, and propose future research directions. Thus, we aim to provide valuable insights to enhance the effectiveness of CAR-T cell therapy.

Triple Negative Breast Cancer Cells Acquire Lymphocyte Proteins and Genomic DNA During Trogocytosis with T Cells

Trogocytosis is the process by which a recipient cell siphons small membrane fragments and proteins from a donor cell and may be utilized by cancer cells to avoid immune detection. We observed lymphocyte specific protein expressed by TNBC cells via immunofluorescence imaging of patient samples. Image analysis of CD45RA expression, a T cell specific protein, revealed that all stages of TNBCs express CD45RA. Flow cytometry revealed TNBC cells trogocytose CD45 protein from T cells. We also showed that the acquisition of these lymphoid markers is contact dependent. Confocal and super-resolution imaging further revealed CD45 + spherical structures containing T cell genomic DNA inside TNBC cells after co-culture. Trogocytosis between T cells and TNBC cells altered cancer cell gene expression. Our results revealed that CD45 is obtained by TNBC cells from T cells via trogocytosis and that TNBC cells express CD45 intracellularly and on the membrane.

Teaser

TNBC cells acquire small spherical structures from T cells containing lymphocyte-specific membrane proteins and genomic DNA.

Application of CAR-T cell therapy targeting mesothelin in solid tumor treatment

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T-cell therapy is one of the most effective immunotherapies. CAR-T-cell therapy has achieved great success in the treatment of hematological malignancies. However, due to the characteristics of solid malignant tumors, such as on-target effects, off-tumor toxicity, an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), and insufficient trafficking, CAR-T-cell therapy for solid tumors is still in the exploration stage. Mesothelin (MSLN) is a molecule expressed on the surface of various solid malignant tumor cells that is suitable as a target of tumor cells with high MSLN expression for CAR-T-cell therapy. This paper briefly described the development of CAR-T cell therapy and the structural features of MSLN, and especially summarized the strategies of structure optimization of MSLN-targeting CAR-T-cells and the enhancement methods of MSLN-targeting CAR-T cell anti-tumor efficacy by summarizing some preclinical experiment and clinical trials. When considering MSLN-targeting CAR-T-cell therapy as an example, this paper summarizes the efforts made by researchers in CAR-T-cell therapy for solid tumors and summarizes feasible treatment plans by integrating the existing research results.

Overcoming the challenges of primary resistance and relapse after CAR-T cell therapy

INTRODUCTION

While CAR T-cell therapy has led to remarkable responses in relapsed B-cell hematologic malignancies, only 50% of patients ultimately have a complete, sustained response. Understanding the mechanisms of resistance and relapse after CAR T-cell therapy is crucial to future development and improving outcomes.

AREAS COVERED

We review reasons for both primary resistance and relapse after CAR T-cell therapies. Reasons for primary failure include CAR T-cell manufacturing problems, suboptimal fitness of autologous T-cells themselves, and intrinsic features of the underlying cancer and tumor microenvironment. Relapse after initial response to CAR T-cell therapy may be antigen-positive, due to CAR T-cell exhaustion or limited persistence, or antigen-negative, due to antigen-modulation on the target cells. Finally, we discuss ongoing efforts to overcome resistance to CAR T-cell therapy with enhanced CAR constructs, manufacturing methods, alternate cell types, combinatorial strategies, and optimization of both pre-infusion conditioning regimens and post-infusion consolidative strategies.

EXPERT OPINION

There is a continued need for novel approaches to CAR T-cell therapy for both hematologic and solid malignancies to obtain sustained remissions. Opportunities for improvement include development of new targets, optimally combining existing CAR T-cell therapies, and defining the role for adjunctive immune modulators and stem cell transplant in enhancing long-term survival.

Challenges and innovations in CAR-T cell therapy: a comprehensive analysis

Recent years have seen a marked increase in research on chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cells, with specific relevance to the treatment of hematological malignancies. Here, the structural principles, iterative processes, and target selection of CAR-T cells for therapeutic applications are described in detail, as well as the challenges faced in the treatment of solid tumors and hematological malignancies. These challenges include insufficient infiltration of cells, off-target effects, cytokine release syndrome, and tumor lysis syndrome. In addition, directions in the iterative development of CAR-T cell therapy are discussed, including modifications of CAR-T cell structures, improvements in specificity using multi-targets and novel targets, the use of Boolean logic gates to minimize off-target effects and control toxicity, and the adoption of additional protection mechanisms to improve the durability of CAR-T cell treatment. This review provides ideas and strategies for the development of CAR-T cell therapy through an in-depth exploration of the underlying mechanisms of action of CAR-T cells and their potential for innovative modification.

Prospects and challenges of CAR-T in the treatment of ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer ranks as the seventh most prevalent cancer among women and is considered the most lethal gynecological malignancy on a global scale. The absence of reliable screening techniques, coupled with the insidious onset of nonspecific symptoms, often results in a delayed diagnosis, typically at an advanced stage characterized by peritoneal involvement. Management of advanced tumors typically involves a combination of chemotherapy and cytoreductive surgery. However, the therapeutic arsenal for ovarian cancer patients remains limited, highlighting the unmet need for precise, targeted, and sustained-release pharmacological agents. Genetically engineered T cells expressing chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) represent a promising novel therapeutic modality that selectively targets specific antigens, demonstrating robust and enduring antitumor responses in numerous patients. CAR T cell therapy has exhibited notable efficacy in hematological malignancies and is currently under investigation for its potential in treating various solid tumors, including ovarian cancer. Currently, numerous researchers are engaged in the development of novel CAR-T cells designed to target ovarian cancer, with subsequent evaluation of these candidate cells in preclinical studies. Given the ability of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) expressing T cells to elicit potent and long-lasting anti-tumor effects, this therapeutic approach holds significant promise for the treatment of ovarian cancer. This review article examines the utilization of CAR-T cells in the context of ovarian cancer therapy.

Structure-guided engineering of immunotherapies targeting TRBC1 and TRBC2 in T cell malignancies

Peripheral T cell lymphomas are typically aggressive with a poor prognosis. Unlike other hematologic malignancies, the lack of target antigens to discriminate healthy from malignant cells limits the efficacy of immunotherapeutic approaches. The T cell receptor expresses one of two highly homologous chains [T cell receptor β-chain constant (TRBC) domains 1 and 2] in a mutually exclusive manner, making it a promising target. Here we demonstrate specificity redirection by rational design using structure-guided computational biology to generate a TRBC2-specific antibody (KFN), complementing the antibody previously described by our laboratory with unique TRBC1 specificity (Jovi-1) in targeting broader spectrum of T cell malignancies clonally expressing either of the two chains. This permits generation of paired reagents (chimeric antigen receptor-T cells) specific for TRBC1 and TRBC2, with preclinical evidence to support their efficacy in T cell malignancies.

Next-Generation CEA-CAR-NK-92 Cells against Solid Tumors: Overcoming Tumor Microenvironment Challenges in Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal carcinoma (CRC) presents a formidable medical challenge, demanding innovative therapeutic strategies. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) natural killer (NK) cell therapy has emerged as a promising alternative to CAR T-cell therapy for cancer. A suitable tumor antigen target on CRC is carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), given its widespread expression and role in tumorigenesis and metastasis. CEA is known to be prolifically shed from tumor cells in a soluble form, thus hindering CAR recognition of tumors and migration through the TME. We have developed a next-generation CAR construct exclusively targeting cell-associated CEA, incorporating a PD1-checkpoint inhibitor and a CCR4 chemokine receptor to enhance homing and infiltration of the CAR-NK-92 cell line through the TME, and which does not induce fratricidal killing of CAR-NK-92-cells. To evaluate this therapeutic approach, we harnessed intricate 3D multicellular tumor spheroid models (MCTS), which emulate key elements of the TME. Our results demonstrate the effective cytotoxicity of CEA-CAR-NK-92 cells against CRC in colorectal cell lines and MCTS models. Importantly, minimal off-target activity against non-cancerous cell lines underscores the precision of this therapy. Furthermore, the integration of the CCR4 migration receptor augments homing by recognizing target ligands, CCL17 and CCL22. Notably, our CAR design results in no significant trogocytosis-induced fratricide. In summary, the proposed CEA-targeting CAR-NK cell therapy could offer a promising solution for CRC treatment, combining precision and efficacy in a tailored approach.

Trogocytosis of CAR molecule regulates CAR-T cell dysfunction and tumor antigen escape

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy has demonstrated clinical response in treating both hematologic malignancies and solid tumors. Although instances of rapid tumor remissions have been observed in animal models and clinical trials, tumor relapses occur with multiple therapeutic resistance mechanisms. Furthermore, while the mechanisms underlying the long-term therapeutic resistance are well-known, short-term adaptation remains less understood. However, more views shed light on short-term adaptation and hold that it provides an opportunity window for long-term resistance. In this study, we explore a previously unreported mechanism in which tumor cells employ trogocytosis to acquire CAR molecules from CAR-T cells, a reversal of previously documented processes. This mechanism results in the depletion of CAR molecules and subsequent CAR-T cell dysfunction, also leading to short-term antigen loss and antigen masking. Such type of intercellular communication is independent of CAR downstream signaling, CAR-T cell condition, target antigen, and tumor cell type. However, it is mainly dependent on antigen density and CAR sensitivity, and is associated with tumor cell cholesterol metabolism. Partial mitigation of this trogocytosis-induced CAR molecule transfer can be achieved by adaptively administering CAR-T cells with antigen density-individualized CAR sensitivities. Together, our study reveals a dynamic process of CAR molecule transfer and refining the framework of clinical CAR-T therapy for solid tumors.

Outsmarting trogocytosis to boost CAR NK/T cell therapy

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) NK and T cell therapy are promising immunotherapeutic approaches for the treatment of cancer. However, the efficacy of CAR NK/T cell therapy is often hindered by various factors, including the phenomenon of trogocytosis, which involves the bidirectional exchange of membrane fragments between cells. In this review, we explore the role of trogocytosis in CAR NK/T cell therapy and highlight potential strategies for its modulation to improve therapeutic efficacy. We provide an in-depth analysis of trogocytosis as it relates to the fate and function of NK and T cells, focusing on its effects on cell activation, cytotoxicity, and antigen presentation. We discuss how trogocytosis can mediate transient antigen loss on cancer cells, thereby negatively affecting the effector function of CAR NK/T cells. Additionally, we address the phenomenon of fratricide and trogocytosis-associated exhaustion, which can limit the persistence and effectiveness of CAR-expressing cells. Furthermore, we explore how trogocytosis can impact CAR NK/T cell functionality, including the acquisition of target molecules and the modulation of signaling pathways. To overcome the negative effects of trogocytosis on cellular immunotherapy, we propose innovative approaches to modulate trogocytosis and augment CAR NK/T cell therapy. These strategies encompass targeting trogocytosis-related molecules, engineering CAR NK/T cells to resist trogocytosis-induced exhaustion and leveraging trogocytosis to enhance the function of CAR-expressing cells. By overcoming the limitations imposed by trogocytosis, it may be possible to unleash the full potential of CAR NK/T therapy against cancer. The knowledge and strategies presented in this review will guide future research and development, leading to improved therapeutic outcomes in the field of immunotherapy.

Physiological and therapeutic relevance of T cell receptor-mediated antigen trogocytosis

Trogocytosis is an active process whereby fragments of plasma membrane proteins and cytoplasm are transferred from one cell to another in a cell-cell contact-dependent manner. T cells trogocytose pieces of the cells presenting antigen to them at the site of the immunological synapse. Fragments of the antigen-presenting cell membrane rich in antigen/major histocompatibility (MHC) complexes are internalized by the T cell. Those complexes are redirected to the plasma membrane of the T cell, which subsequently becomes an antigen-presenting cell to other T cells. Removing antigen/MHC complexes from professional and tumoral cells has consequences for the intensity and duration of the immune response. However, the acquired capacity of T cells to present the trogocytosed cognate antigen/MHC complexes also affects the properties of the trogocytotic T cells. Acting as antigen-presenting cells, trogocytotic CD4 T cells influence both the differentiation of cytotoxic T cells and the differentiation of other CD4 T cells into pro-inflammatory effector T cells. Furthermore, trogocytosis of antigen/MHC complexes promotes the differentiation of the trogocytotic CD4 T cells towards regulatory T cells and Th2 effector cells. Trogoctyosis is, therefore, a parallel mechanism to signal transduction by membrane receptors, including the T cell antigen receptor, at the plane of the plasma membrane.

Advancements in CAR-NK therapy: lessons to be learned from CAR-T therapy

Advancements in chimeric antigen receptor engineered T-cell (CAR-T) therapy have revolutionized treatment for several cancer types over the past decade. Despite this success, obstacles including the high price tag, manufacturing complexity, and treatment-associated toxicities have limited the broad application of this therapy. Chimeric antigen receptor engineered natural killer cell (CAR-NK) therapy offers a potential opportunity for a simpler and more affordable "off-the-shelf" treatment, likely with fewer toxicities. Unlike CAR-T, CAR-NK therapies are still in early development, with few clinical trials yet reported. Given the challenges experienced through the development of CAR-T therapies, this review explores what lessons we can apply to build better CAR-NK therapies. In particular, we explore the importance of optimizing the immunochemical properties of the CAR construct, understanding factors leading to cell product persistence, enhancing trafficking of transferred cells to the tumor, ensuring the metabolic fitness of the transferred product, and strategies to avoid tumor escape through antigen loss. We also review trogocytosis, an important emerging challenge that likely equally applies to CAR-T and CAR-NK cells. Finally, we discuss how these limitations are already being addressed in CAR-NK therapies, and what future directions may be possible.

Tuned activation of MSLN-CAR T cells induces superior antitumor responses in ovarian cancer models

BACKGROUND

Limited persistence of functional CAR T cells in the immunosuppressive solid tumor microenvironment remains a major hurdle in the successful translation of CAR T cell therapy to treat solid tumors. Fine-tuning of CAR T cell activation by mutating CD3ζ chain immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs (ITAMs) in CD19-CAR T cells (containing the CD28 costimulatory domain) has proven to extend functional CAR T cell persistence in preclinical models of B cell malignancies.

METHODS

In this study, two conventional second-generation MSLN-CAR T cell constructs encoding for either a CD28 co-stimulatory (M28z) or 4-1BB costimulatory (MBBz) domain and a novel mesothelin (MSLN)-directed CAR T cell construct encoding for the CD28 costimulatory domain and CD3ζ chain containing a single ITAM (M1xx) were evaluated using in vitro and in vivo preclinical models of ovarian cancer. Two ovarian cancer cell lines and two orthotopic models of ovarian cancer in NSG mice were used: SKOV-3 cells inoculated through microsurgery in the ovary and to mimic a disseminated model of advanced ovarian cancer, OVCAR-4 cells injected intraperitoneally. MSLN-CAR T cell treatment efficacy was evaluated by survival analysis and the characterization and quantification of the different MSLN-CAR T cells were performed by flow cytometry, quantitative PCR and gene expression analysis.

RESULTS

M1xx CAR T cells elicited superior antitumor potency and persistence, as compared with the conventional second generation M28z and MBBz CAR T cells. Ex vivo M28z and MBBz CAR T cells displayed a more exhausted phenotype than M1xx CAR T cells as determined by co-expression of PD-1, LAG-3 and TIM-3. Furthermore, M1xx CAR T cells showed superior ex vivo IFNy, TNF and GzB production and were characterized by a self-renewal gene signature.

CONCLUSIONS

Altogether, our study demonstrates the enhanced therapeutic potential of MSLN-CAR T cells expressing a mutated CD3ζ chain containing a single ITAM for the treatment of ovarian cancer. CAR T cells armored with calibrated activation potential may improve the clinical responses in solid tumors.

Recent advances in CAR-T cells therapy for colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer, with a high mortality rate and a serious impact on people’s life and health. In recent years, adoptive chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cells therapy has shown well efficacy in the treatment of hematological malignancies, but there are still many problems and challenges in solid tumors such as CRC. For example, the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment, the low targeting of CAR-T cells, the short time of CAR-T cells in vivo, and the limited proliferation capacity of CAR-T cells, CAR-T cells can not effectively infiltrate into the tumor and so on. New approaches have been proposed to address these challenges in CRC, and this review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of CAR-T cells therapy in CRC.