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Piñón-Blanco A, Vergara-Moragues E, Gutiérrez-Martínez O, Fernández-Palleiro P, Rodrigues S, Rodrigues-Amorím D, Lage-López MT, González-López A, Velasquez T, Amorim M, Lloves-Moratinos M, Viéitez-Fernández I, Sabio-Fernandez G, Graña-Torralba R, Vilar-Díaz V, Carrera-Machado I, Cancelo-Martinez J, Ferreira A, Cardoso S, Rivera-Baltanás T, Otero-Lamas F, Olivares JM, Spuch C. Efficacy of the Therapeutic Game "Trisquel" in the Treatment of Patients With Substance-Related Disorders Randomized Clinical Study. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:864511. [PMID: 35586410 PMCID: PMC9108152 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.864511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Substance-related disorders (SRD) have been consistently associated with alterations both in cognitive and executive functions, which affect to patients' quality of life. The main objective of this work was to test the beneficial cognitive effects on patients with SRD after the implementation of "Trisquel," an intervention program in board game format. To check the effectiveness of Trisquel program, a group of people diagnosed with SRD was randomly assigned either to the experimental group or to the control group. The experimental group performed Trisquel structured sessions twice a week during 3 months, while the control group performed routinely conventional therapeutic activities with the same frequency and duration. Neuropsychological tests were done to both groups before and after the intervention. After the 3 months of intervention the experimental group showed the following statistically significant improvements for WAIS-III subtests: number key, symbol search, arithmetic, direct digits, inverse digits, total digits, letters-numbers in the processing speed index and in the working memory index. Regarding STROOP tests, statistically significant progress was observed in the phonetic fluency letter P, phonetic fluency letter M, phonetic fluency letter R subtests, word-reading and word-color subtests. The control group only obtained improvements for WAIS-III subtests of arithmetic, letters-numbers and in the working memory index. The results of this study confirm that "Trisquel" is an effective intervention program for people diagnosed with SRD, getting improvements in processing speed (psychomotor and reading), attentional subprocesses (focused and sustained) and executive functions (updating and inhibition).
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Affiliation(s)
- Adolfo Piñón-Blanco
- Drug Dependency Assistance Unit of Vigo City Council (CEDRO), Vigo, Spain.,Translational Neuroscience Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, Vigo, Spain
| | - Esperanza Vergara-Moragues
- Departamento de Psicobiología y Metodología en Ciencias del Comportamiento, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Olga Gutiérrez-Martínez
- Translational Neuroscience Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, Vigo, Spain.,Department of Psychiatry, Hospital Álvaro Cunqueiro, SERGAS, Vigo, Spain
| | - Patricia Fernández-Palleiro
- Translational Neuroscience Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, Vigo, Spain
| | - Sonia Rodrigues
- Division for the Intervention of Addictive Behaviors and Dependencies (DICAD) of the Regional Health Administration-North of Portugal, Porto, Portugal
| | - Daniela Rodrigues-Amorím
- Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - María Teresa Lage-López
- Citizens' Association for the Fight Against Drugs (Asociación Ciudadana de Lucha Contra la Droga), A Coruña, Spain
| | - Ana González-López
- Citizens' Association for the Fight Against Drugs (Asociación Ciudadana de Lucha Contra la Droga), A Coruña, Spain
| | | | - Mónica Amorim
- Division for the Intervention of Addictive Behaviors and Dependencies (DICAD) of the Regional Health Administration-North of Portugal, Porto, Portugal
| | - Manuel Lloves-Moratinos
- Citizens' Association for the Fight Against Drugs (Asociación Ciudadana de Lucha Contra la Droga), ACLAD-Alborada, Vigo, Spain
| | | | - Gerardo Sabio-Fernandez
- Citizens' Association for the Fight Against Drugs (Asociación Ciudadana de Lucha Contra la Droga), ACLAD-Alborada, Vigo, Spain
| | | | - Vanesa Vilar-Díaz
- Ferrol Association of Drug Addictions of Ferrol (ASFEDRO), Ferrol, Spain
| | - Indalecio Carrera-Machado
- Citizens' Association for the Fight Against Drugs (Asociación Ciudadana de Lucha Contra la Droga), A Coruña, Spain
| | - Jesús Cancelo-Martinez
- Citizens' Association for the Fight Against Drugs (Asociación Ciudadana de Lucha Contra la Droga), ACLAD-Alborada, Vigo, Spain
| | - Adelino Ferreira
- Division for the Intervention of Addictive Behaviors and Dependencies (DICAD) of the Regional Health Administration-North of Portugal, Porto, Portugal
| | - Susana Cardoso
- Division for the Intervention of Addictive Behaviors and Dependencies (DICAD) of the Regional Health Administration-North of Portugal, Porto, Portugal
| | - Tania Rivera-Baltanás
- Translational Neuroscience Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, Vigo, Spain.,CIBERSAM, Centro Investigación Biomédica en Red Salud Mental, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Otero-Lamas
- Drug Dependency Assistance Unit of Vigo City Council (CEDRO), Vigo, Spain.,Translational Neuroscience Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, Vigo, Spain
| | - José Manuel Olivares
- Translational Neuroscience Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, Vigo, Spain.,Department of Psychiatry, Hospital Álvaro Cunqueiro, SERGAS, Vigo, Spain.,CIBERSAM, Centro Investigación Biomédica en Red Salud Mental, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Spuch
- Translational Neuroscience Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, Vigo, Spain.,CIBERSAM, Centro Investigación Biomédica en Red Salud Mental, Madrid, Spain
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Kaur N, Dendukuri N, Fellows LK, Brouillette MJ, Mayo N. Association between cognitive reserve and cognitive performance in people with HIV: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS Care 2019; 32:1-11. [PMID: 31084206 DOI: 10.1080/09540121.2019.1612017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive reserve is a potential explanation for the disparity between brain pathology and its clinical manifestations. The main objective of this study was to estimate, based on published studies, the strength of the association between cognitive reserve and cognitive performance in individuals with HIV. A systematic literature search using Ovid MEDLINE, PsychINFO, and EMBASE was performed to identify studies published between 1990 and 2016 that quantified the association between cognitive reserve and cognitive performance in HIV. A random-effects meta-analysis was used to compute a summary estimate (Cohen's d) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) and 95% prediction intervals (PI). The risk of bias and quality of reporting in the studies were indicated by the Appraisal tool for Cross-Sectional Studies (AXIS). Ten observational studies were deemed eligible. The pooled effect size was 0.9 (95% CI: 0.7-1.0; 95% PI: 0.4-1.4) with marked heterogeneity studies [Cochran's Q (df = 9) = 28.0, p = .0009; I2 statistic = 67.4%]. Risk-of-bias appraisal showed that non-response bias was never addressed and the items associated with selection bias were only partially met. The association between cognitive reserve and cognitive performance suggests that building reserve through non-pharmacological interventions could be a potentially effective way of combating cognitive impairment in people with HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navaldeep Kaur
- School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, McGill University, Montreal, Canada.,Division of Clinical Epidemiology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada.,Center for Outcomes Research and Evaluation, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Canada
| | - Nandini Dendukuri
- Division of Clinical Epidemiology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Lesley K Fellows
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | | | - Nancy Mayo
- School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, McGill University, Montreal, Canada.,Division of Clinical Epidemiology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada.,Center for Outcomes Research and Evaluation, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Canada
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3
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Cutuli D, de Guevara-Miranda DL, Castilla-Ortega E, Santín L, Sampedro-Piquero P. Highlighting the Role of Cognitive and Brain Reserve in the Substance use Disorder Field. Curr Neuropharmacol 2019; 17:1056-1070. [PMID: 31204624 PMCID: PMC7052825 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x17666190617100707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cognitive reserve (CR) refers to the ability of an individual to cope with brain pathology remaining free of cognitive symptoms. This protective factor has been related to compensatory and more efficient brain mechanisms involved in resisting brain damage. For its part, Brain reserve (BR) refers to individual differences in the structural properties of the brain which could also make us more resilient to suffer from neurodegenerative and mental diseases. OBJECTIVE This review summarizes how this construct, mainly mediated by educational level, occupational attainment, physical and mental activity, as well as successful social relationships, has gained scientific attention in the last years with regard to diseases, such as neurodegenerative diseases, stroke or traumatic brain injury. Nevertheless, although CR has been studied in a large number of disorders, few researches have addressed the role of this concept in drug addiction. METHODS We provide a selective overview of recent literature about the role of CR and BR in preventing substance use onset. Likewise, we will also discuss how variables involved in CR (healthy leisure, social support or job-related activities, among others) could be trained and included as complementary activities of substance use disorder treatments. RESULTS Evidence about this topic suggests a preventive role of CR and BR on drug use onset and when drug addiction is established, these factors led to less severe addiction-related problems, as well as better treatment outcomes. CONCLUSION CR and BR are variables not taken yet into account in drug addiction. However, they could give us a valuable information about people at risk, as well as patient's prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - L.J. Santín
- Address correspondence to these authors at the Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Doctor Miguel Díaz Recio, 28 Málaga 29010, Departamento de Psicobiología y Metodología de las Ciencias del Comportamiento, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga, Campus de Teatinos S/N, 29071 Málaga, Spain; E-mails: (P. Sampedro-Piquero) and (L.J. Santín)
| | - P. Sampedro-Piquero
- Address correspondence to these authors at the Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Doctor Miguel Díaz Recio, 28 Málaga 29010, Departamento de Psicobiología y Metodología de las Ciencias del Comportamiento, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga, Campus de Teatinos S/N, 29071 Málaga, Spain; E-mails: (P. Sampedro-Piquero) and (L.J. Santín)
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Oppenheim H, Paolillo EW, Moore RC, Ellis RJ, Letendre SL, Jeste DV, Grant I, Moore DJ. Neurocognitive functioning predicts frailty index in HIV. Neurology 2018; 91:e162-e170. [PMID: 29875216 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000005761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Accepted: 04/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the association between a frailty index (i.e., scale of accumulated deficits) and neurocognitive functioning among persons living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA). METHODS Observational, cross-sectional data were gathered from the University of California, San Diego, HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program from 2002 to 2016. Eight hundred eleven PLWHA aged 18 to 79 years completed comprehensive physical, neuropsychological, and neuromedical evaluations. The frailty index was composed of 26 general and HIV-specific health maintenance measures, and reflects the proportion of accumulated deficits from 0 (no deficits) to 1 (all 26 deficits). Multiple linear regression was used to examine the association between continuous frailty index scores and neurocognitive functioning. RESULTS Participants had a mean age of 44.6 years (11.2), and were mostly male (86.9%) and white (60.2%) with a mean frailty index of 0.26 (0.11). Over the study period, prevalence of HIV-related components (e.g., low CD4) decreased, while non-HIV comorbidities (e.g., diabetes) increased. There were no changes in the frailty index by study year. Higher frailty index was associated with worse global neurocognitive functioning, even after adjusting for covariates (age, employment, and premorbid intellectual functioning; b = -0.007; 95% confidence interval [CI] = -0.0112 to -0.003; p < 0.001). The cognitive domains of verbal fluency (b = -0.004; 95% CI = -0.006 to -0.002), executive functioning (b = -0.004; 95% CI = -0.006 to -0.002), processing speed (b = -0.005; 95% CI = -0.007 to -0.003), and motor skills (b = -0.006; 95% CI = -0.007 to -0.005) also significantly predicted worse frailty index score (p values <0.001). CONCLUSION A frailty index can standardize how clinicians identify PLWHA who may be at higher risk of neurocognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Oppenheim
- From the University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine (H.O.); San Diego State University/University of California, San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology (E.W.P.); Departments of Psychiatry (R.C.M., D.V.J., I.G., D.J.M.), Neurosciences (R.J.E.), and Medicine (S.L.L.), University of California, San Diego; VA San Diego Healthcare System (R.C.M.), CA; and Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Research on Aging (D.V.J.), University of California, San Diego
| | - Emily W Paolillo
- From the University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine (H.O.); San Diego State University/University of California, San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology (E.W.P.); Departments of Psychiatry (R.C.M., D.V.J., I.G., D.J.M.), Neurosciences (R.J.E.), and Medicine (S.L.L.), University of California, San Diego; VA San Diego Healthcare System (R.C.M.), CA; and Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Research on Aging (D.V.J.), University of California, San Diego
| | - Raeanne C Moore
- From the University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine (H.O.); San Diego State University/University of California, San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology (E.W.P.); Departments of Psychiatry (R.C.M., D.V.J., I.G., D.J.M.), Neurosciences (R.J.E.), and Medicine (S.L.L.), University of California, San Diego; VA San Diego Healthcare System (R.C.M.), CA; and Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Research on Aging (D.V.J.), University of California, San Diego
| | - Ronald J Ellis
- From the University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine (H.O.); San Diego State University/University of California, San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology (E.W.P.); Departments of Psychiatry (R.C.M., D.V.J., I.G., D.J.M.), Neurosciences (R.J.E.), and Medicine (S.L.L.), University of California, San Diego; VA San Diego Healthcare System (R.C.M.), CA; and Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Research on Aging (D.V.J.), University of California, San Diego
| | - Scott L Letendre
- From the University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine (H.O.); San Diego State University/University of California, San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology (E.W.P.); Departments of Psychiatry (R.C.M., D.V.J., I.G., D.J.M.), Neurosciences (R.J.E.), and Medicine (S.L.L.), University of California, San Diego; VA San Diego Healthcare System (R.C.M.), CA; and Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Research on Aging (D.V.J.), University of California, San Diego
| | - Dilip V Jeste
- From the University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine (H.O.); San Diego State University/University of California, San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology (E.W.P.); Departments of Psychiatry (R.C.M., D.V.J., I.G., D.J.M.), Neurosciences (R.J.E.), and Medicine (S.L.L.), University of California, San Diego; VA San Diego Healthcare System (R.C.M.), CA; and Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Research on Aging (D.V.J.), University of California, San Diego
| | - Igor Grant
- From the University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine (H.O.); San Diego State University/University of California, San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology (E.W.P.); Departments of Psychiatry (R.C.M., D.V.J., I.G., D.J.M.), Neurosciences (R.J.E.), and Medicine (S.L.L.), University of California, San Diego; VA San Diego Healthcare System (R.C.M.), CA; and Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Research on Aging (D.V.J.), University of California, San Diego
| | - David J Moore
- From the University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine (H.O.); San Diego State University/University of California, San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology (E.W.P.); Departments of Psychiatry (R.C.M., D.V.J., I.G., D.J.M.), Neurosciences (R.J.E.), and Medicine (S.L.L.), University of California, San Diego; VA San Diego Healthcare System (R.C.M.), CA; and Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Research on Aging (D.V.J.), University of California, San Diego.
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Reynoso-Alcántara V, Silva-Pereyra J, Fernández-Harmony T, Mondragón-Maya A. Principales efectos de la reserva cognitiva sobre diversas enfermedades: una revisión sistemática. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.psiq.2018.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Neuropsychological functioning in methadone maintenance patients with HIV. REVISTA LATINOAMERICANA DE PSICOLOGIA 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rlp.2015.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Fialho R, Pereira M, Bucur M, Fisher M, Whale R, Rusted J. Cognitive impairment in HIV and HCV co-infected patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS Care 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/09540121.2016.1191614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Alvarez-Tostado P, Inozemtseva O, Aguiñiga MA, López E, Matute E. The relationship between cognitive reserve and the clinical stage of HIV infection. AIDS Care 2015; 28:633-8. [PMID: 26711542 DOI: 10.1080/09540121.2015.1124985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine whether the effect of cognitive reserve (CR) on neuropsychological functioning differs according to the clinical stage of HIV infection. A sample of 34 HIV-positive individuals aged 23-49, with a minimum of 9 years of formal education, was assessed. Participants were grouped according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) clinical stages (A = 10, B = 16, C = 8). CR was calculated for each clinical stage group in accordance with estimates of premorbid IQ, years of education, and occupational attainment. The sum of these three variables was then transformed into z-scores. Individuals above the median were classified as having "High" CR (HCR), those below the median were classified as "Low" CR (LCR). Participants completed an evaluation of cognitive and executive functions based on selected, modified tasks from the HIV University of Miami Annotated Neuropsychological test in Spanish (HUMANS). Assessment included the following domains: attention, memory (visual, verbal, and working memory), executive functions (cognitive flexibility, switching), language (naming), and visual constructive skills (block design). HCR outperformed LCR in all cognitive domains. Comparison of HCR and LCR in each clinical stage revealed that the effect of CR was stronger in stage B than in stages A and C, suggesting that this effect does indeed vary among stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Alvarez-Tostado
- a Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad de Guadalajara , Guadalajara , Jalisco , México
| | - Olga Inozemtseva
- a Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad de Guadalajara , Guadalajara , Jalisco , México.,b Departamento de Estudios en Educación , Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad de Guadalajara , Guadalajara , Jalisco , México
| | - Miguel A Aguiñiga
- c Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social , Guadalajara , Jalisco , México
| | - Enrique López
- d Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences , Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Thalians Health Center , Los Angeles , CA , USA
| | - Esmeralda Matute
- a Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad de Guadalajara , Guadalajara , Jalisco , México.,b Departamento de Estudios en Educación , Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad de Guadalajara , Guadalajara , Jalisco , México
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García-Torres A, Vergara-Moragues E, Piñón-Blanco A, Pérez-García M. Alteraciones neuropsicológicas en pacientes con VIH e historia previa de consumo de sustancias. Un estudio preliminar. REVISTA LATINOAMERICANA DE PSICOLOGIA 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rlp.2015.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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10
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Sheppard DP, Woods SP, Bondi MW, Gilbert PE, Massman PJ, Doyle KL. Does Older Age Confer an Increased Risk of Incident Neurocognitive Disorders Among Persons Living with HIV Disease? Clin Neuropsychol 2015; 29:656-77. [PMID: 26367342 DOI: 10.1080/13854046.2015.1077995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to determine the combined effects of age and HIV infection on the risk of incident neurocognitive disorders. METHOD A total of 146 neurocognitively normal participants were enrolled at baseline into one of four groups based on age (≤ 40 years and ≥ 50 years) and HIV serostatus resulting in 24 younger HIV-, 27 younger HIV+, 39 older HIV-, and 56 older HIV+ individuals. All participants were administered a standardized clinical neuropsychological battery at baseline and 14.3 ± .2 months later. RESULTS A logistic regression predicting incident neurocognitive disorders from HIV, age group, and their interaction was significant (χ(2)[4] = 13.56, p = .009), with a significant main effect of HIV serostatus (χ(2)[1] = 5.01, p = .025), but no main effect of age or age by HIV interaction (ps > .10). Specifically, 15.7% of the HIV+ individuals had an incident neurocognitive disorder as compared to 3.2% of the HIV- group (odds ratio = 4.8 [1.2, 32.6]). Among older HIV+ adults, lower baseline cognitive reserve, prospective memory, and verbal fluency each predicted incident neurocognitive disorders at follow-up. CONCLUSIONS Independent of age, HIV infection confers a nearly fivefold risk for developing a neurocognitive disorder over approximately one year. Individuals with lower cognitive reserve and mild weaknesses in higher-order neurocognitive functions may be targeted for closer clinical monitoring and preventative measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- David P Sheppard
- a Department of Psychology , The University of Houston , Houston , TX , USA
| | - Steven Paul Woods
- a Department of Psychology , The University of Houston , Houston , TX , USA.,b Department of Psychiatry , The HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program, University of California , San Diego , CA , USA
| | - Mark W Bondi
- c Psychology Service , VA San Diego Healthcare System , San Diego , CA , USA.,d Department of Psychiatry , University of California , San Diego , CA , USA
| | - Paul E Gilbert
- e Department of Psychology , San Diego State University , San Diego , CA , USA
| | - Paul J Massman
- a Department of Psychology , The University of Houston , Houston , TX , USA
| | - Katie L Doyle
- f SDSU/UCSD Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology , San Diego , CA , USA
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