Cellular and cell-free studies of catalytic DNA cleavage by ruthenium polypyridyl complexes containing redox-active intercalating ligands

The ruthenium(ii) polypyridyl complexes (RPCs), [(phen)2Ru(tatpp)]2+ (32+ ) and [(phen)2Ru(tatpp)Ru(phen)2]4+ (44+ ) are shown to cleave DNA in cell-free studies in the presence of a mild reducing agent, i.e. glutathione (GSH), in a manner that is enhanced upon lowering the [O2]. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in the cleavage process as hydroxy radical scavengers attenuate the cleavage activity. Cleavage experiments in the presence of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase reveal a central role for H2O2 as the immediate precursor for hydroxy radicals. A mechanism is proposed which explains the inverse [O2] dependence and ROS data and involves redox cycling between three DNA-bound redox isomers of 32+ or 44+ . Cultured non-small cell lung cancer cells (H358) are sensitive to 32+ and 44+ with IC50 values of 13 and 15 μM, respectively, and xenograft H358 tumors in nude mice show substantial (∼80%) regression relative to untreated tumors when the mice are treated with enantiopure versions of 32+ and 44+ (Yadav et al. Mol Cancer Res, 2013, 12, 643). Fluorescence microscopy of H358 cells treated with 15 μM 44+ reveals enhanced intracellular ROS production in as little as 2 h post treatment. Detection of phosphorylated ATM via immunofluorescence within 2 h of treatment with 44+ reveals initiation of the DNA damage repair machinery due to the ROS insult and DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) in the nuclei of H358 cells and is confirmed using the γH2AX assay. The cell data for 32+ is less clear but DNA damage occurs. Notably, cells treated with [Ru(diphenylphen)3]2+ (IC50 1.7 μM) show no extra ROS production and no DNA damage by either the pATM or γH2AX even after 22 h. The enhanced DNA cleavage under low [O2] (4 μM) seen in cell-free cleavage assays of 32+ and 44+ is only partially reflected in the cytotoxicity of 32+ and 44+ in H358, HCC2998, HOP-62 and Hs766t under hypoxia (1.1% O2) relative to normoxia (18% O2). Cells treated with RPC 32+ show up to a two-fold enhancement in the IC50 under hypoxia whereas cells treated with RPC 44+ gave the same IC50 whether under hypoxia or normoxia.

Protoanemonin: a natural quorum sensing inhibitor that selectively activates iron starvation response

Many Gram-negative bacteria employ cell-to-cell communication mediated by N-acyl homoserine lactones (quorum sensing) to control expression of a wide range of genes including, but not limited to, genes encoding virulence factors. Outside the laboratory, the bacteria live in complex communities where signals may be perceived across species. We here present a newly found natural quorum sensing inhibitor, produced by the pseudomonads Pseudomonas sp. B13 and Pseudomonas reinekei MT1 as a blind end in the biodegradation of organochloride xenobiotics, which inhibits quorum sensing in P. aeruginosa in naturally occurring concentrations. This catabolite, 4-methylenebut-2-en-4-olide, also known as protoanemonin, has been reported to possess antibacterial properties, but seems to have dual functions. Using transcriptomics and proteomics, we found that protoanemonin significantly reduced expression of genes and secretion of proteins known to be under control of quorum sensing in P. aeruginosa. Moreover, we found activation of genes and gene products involved in iron starvation response. It is thus likely that inhibition of quorum sensing, as the production of antibiotics, is a phenomenon found in complex bacterial communities.