Two single-headed myosin V motors bound to a tetrameric adapter protein form a processive complex

Walking the line: mechanisms underlying directional mRNA transport and localisation in neurons and beyond

Messenger RNA (mRNA) localisation enables a high degree of spatiotemporal control on protein synthesis, which contributes to establishing the asymmetric protein distribution required to set up and maintain cellular polarity. As such, a tight control of mRNA localisation is essential for many biological processes during development and in adulthood, such as body axes determination in Drosophila melanogaster and synaptic plasticity in neurons. The mechanisms controlling how mRNAs are localised, including diffusion and entrapment, local degradation and directed active transport, are largely conserved across evolution and have been under investigation for decades in different biological models. In this review, we will discuss the standing of the field regarding directional mRNA transport in light of the recent discovery that RNA can hitchhike on cytoplasmic organelles, such as endolysosomes, and the impact of these transport modalities on our understanding of neuronal function during development, adulthood and in neurodegeneration.

Unconventional Myosins: How Regulation Meets Function

Unconventional myosins are multi-potent molecular motors that are assigned important roles in fundamental cellular processes. Depending on their mechano-enzymatic properties and structural features, myosins fulfil their roles by acting as cargo transporters along the actin cytoskeleton, molecular anchors or tension sensors. In order to perform such a wide range of roles and modes of action, myosins need to be under tight regulation in time and space. This is achieved at multiple levels through diverse regulatory mechanisms: the alternative splicing of various isoforms, the interaction with their binding partners, their phosphorylation, their applied load and the composition of their local environment, such as ions and lipids. This review summarizes our current knowledge of how unconventional myosins are regulated, how these regulatory mechanisms can adapt to the specific features of a myosin and how they can converge with each other in order to ensure the required tight control of their function.

Analysis of cell cycle parameters during the transition from unhindered growth to ribosomal and translational stress conditions

Abrogation of ribosome synthesis (ribosomal stress) leads to cell cycle arrest. However, the immediate cell response to cessation of ribosome formation and the transition from normal cell proliferation to cell cycle arrest have not been characterized. Furthermore, there are conflicting conclusions about whether cells are arrested in G2/M or G1, and whether the cause is dismantling ribosomal assembly per se, or the ensuing decreased number of translating ribosomes. To address these questions, we have compared the time kinetics of key cell cycle parameters after inhibiting ribosome formation or function in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Within one-to-two hours of repressing genes for individual ribosomal proteins or Translation Elongation factor 3, configurations of spindles, spindle pole bodies began changing. Actin began depolarizing within 4 hours. Thus the loss of ribosome formation and function is sensed immediately. After several hours no spindles or mitotic actin rings were visible, but membrane ingression was completed in most cells and Ace2 was localized to daughter cell nuclei demonstrating that the G1 stage was reached. Thus cell division was completed without the help of a contractile actin ring. Moreover, cell wall material held mother and daughter cells together resulting in delayed cell separation, suggesting that expression or function of daughter gluconases and chitinases is inhibited. Moreover, cell development changes in very similar ways in response to inhibition of ribosome formation and function, compatible with the notion that decreased translation capacity contributes to arresting the cell cycle after abrogation of ribosome biogenesis. Potential implications for the mechanisms of diseases caused by mutations in ribosomal genes (ribosomopathies) are discussed.

mRNA transport in fungal top models

Eukaryotic cells rely on the precise determination of when and where proteins are synthesized. Spatiotemporal expression is supported by localization of mRNAs to specific subcellular sites and their subsequent local translation. This holds true for somatic cells as well as for oocytes and embryos. Most commonly, mRNA localization is achieved by active transport of the molecules along the actin or microtubule cytoskeleton. Key factors are molecular motors, adaptors, and RNA-binding proteins that recognize defined sequences or structures in cargo mRNAs. A deep understanding of this process has been gained from research on fungal model systems such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Ustilago maydis. Recent highlights of these studies are the following: (1) synergistic binding of two RNA-binding proteins is needed for high affinity recognition; (2) RNA sequences undergo profound structural rearrangements upon recognition; (3) mRNA transport is tightly linked to membrane trafficking; (4) mRNAs and ribosomes are transported on the cytoplasmic surface of endosomes; and (5) heteromeric protein complexes are, most likely, assembled co-translationally during endosomal transport. Thus, the study of simple fungal model organisms provides valuable insights into fundamental mechanisms of mRNA transport boosting the understanding of similar events in higher eukaryotes. WIREs RNA 2018, 9:e1453. doi: 10.1002/wrna.1453 This article is categorized under: RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > Protein-RNA Recognition RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > RNA-Protein Complexes RNA Export and Localization > RNA Localization.

Structure analyses reveal a regulated oligomerization mechanism of the PlexinD1/GIPC/myosin VI complex

The GIPC family adaptor proteins mediate endocytosis by tethering cargo proteins to the myosin VI motor. The structural mechanisms for the GIPC/cargo and GIPC/myosin VI interactions remained unclear. PlexinD1, a transmembrane receptor that regulates neuronal and cardiovascular development, is a cargo of GIPCs. GIPC-mediated endocytic trafficking regulates PlexinD1 signaling. Here, we unravel the mechanisms of the interactions among PlexinD1, GIPCs and myosin VI by a series of crystal structures of these proteins in apo or bound states. GIPC1 forms a domain-swapped dimer in an autoinhibited conformation that hinders binding of both PlexinD1 and myosin VI. PlexinD1 binding to GIPC1 releases the autoinhibition, promoting its interaction with myosin VI. GIPCs and myosin VI interact through two distinct interfaces and form an open-ended alternating array. Our data support that this alternating array underlies the oligomerization of the GIPC/Myosin VI complexes in solution and cells.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.27322.001

A single-headed fission yeast myosin V transports actin in a tropomyosin-dependent manner

Myo51, a class V myosin in fission yeast, localizes to and assists in the assembly of the contractile ring, a conserved eukaryotic actomyosin structure that facilitates cytokinesis. Rng8 and Rng9 are binding partners that dictate the cellular localization and function of Myo51. Myo51 was expressed in insect cells in the presence or absence of Rng8/9. Surprisingly, electron microscopy of negatively stained images and hydrodynamic measurements showed that Myo51 is single headed, unlike most class V myosins. When Myo51-Rng8/9 was bound to actin-tropomyosin, two attachment sites were observed: the typical ATP-dependent motor domain attachment and a novel ATP-independent binding of the tail mediated by Rng8/9. A modified motility assay showed that this additional binding site anchors Myo51-Rng8/9 so that it can cross-link and slide actin-tropomyosin filaments relative to one another, functions that may explain the role of this motor in contractile ring assembly.

ASH1 mRNP-core factors form stable complexes in absence of cargo RNA at physiological conditions

Asymmetric ASH1 mRNA transport during mitosis of budding yeast constitutes one of the best-studied examples of mRNA localization. Recently, 2 studies used in vitro motility assays to prove that motile ASH1 mRNA-transport complexes can be reconstituted entirely from recombinant factors. Both studies, however, differed in their conclusions on whether cargo RNA itself is required for particle assembly and thus activation of directional transport. Here we provide direct evidence that stable complexes do assemble in absence of RNA at physiologic conditions and even at ionic strengths above cellular levels. These results directly confirm the previous notion that the ASH1 transport machinery is not activated by the cargo RNA itself, but rather through protein-protein interactions.

Membrane-Coupled mRNA Trafficking in Fungi

Intracellular logistics are essential for delivery of newly synthesized material during polar growth of fungal hyphae. Proteins and lipids are actively transported throughout the cell by motor-dependent movement of small vesicles or larger units such as endosomes and the endoplasmic reticulum. A remarkably tight link is emerging between active membrane trafficking and mRNA transport, a process that determines the precise subcellular localization of translation products within the cell. Here, we report on recent insights into the mechanism and biological role of these intricate cotransport processes in fungal models such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida albicans, and Ustilago maydis. In the latter, we focus on the new finding of endosomal mRNA transport and its implications for protein targeting, complex assembly, and septin biology.

Electron Microscopy: From 2D to 3D Images with Special Reference to Muscle

This is a brief and necessarily very sketchy presentation of the evolution in electron microscopy (EM) imaging that was driven by the necessity of extracting 3-D views from the essentially 2-D images produced by the electron beam. The lens design of standard transmission electron microscope has not been greatly altered since its inception. However, technical advances in specimen preparation, image collection and analysis gradually induced an astounding progression over a period of about 50 years. From the early images that redefined tissues, cell and cell organelles at the sub-micron level, to the current nano-resolution reconstructions of organelles and proteins the step is very large. The review is written by an investigator who has followed the field for many years, but often from the sidelines, and with great wonder. Her interest in muscle ultrastructure colors the writing. More specific detailed reviews are presented in this issue.

Hooking She3p onto She2p for myosin-mediated cytoplasmic mRNA transport

The segregation of approximately two dozen distinct mRNAs from yeast mother to daughter cell cytoplasm is a classical paradigm for eukaryotic mRNA transport. The information for transport resides in an mRNA element 40-100 nt in length, known as "zipcode." Targeted transport requires properly positioned actin filaments and cooperative loading of mRNA cargo to myosin. Cargo loading to myosin uses myosin 4 protein (Myo4p), swi5p-dependent HO expression 2 protein (She2p) and 3 protein (She3p), and zipcode. We previously determined a crystal structure of Myo4p and She3p, their 1:2 stoichiometry and interactome; we furthermore showed that the motor complex assembly requires two Myo4p⋅She3p heterotrimers, one She2p tetramer, and at least a single zipcode to yield a stable complex of [Myo4p⋅She3p⋅She2p⋅zipcode] in 2:4:4:1 stoichiometry in vitro. Here, we report a structure at 2.8-Å resolution of a cocrystal of a She2p tetramer bound to a segment of She3p. In this crystal structure, the She3p segment forms a striking hook that binds to a shallow hydrophobic pocket on the surface of each She2p subunit of the tetramer. Both She3p hook and cognate She2p binding pocket are composed of highly conserved residues. We also discovered a highly conserved region of She3p upstream of its hook region. Because this region consists of basic and aromatic residues, it likely represents part of She3p's binding activity for zipcode. Because She2p also exhibits zipcode-binding activity, we suggest that "hooking" She3p onto She2p aligns each of their zipcode-binding activities into a high-affinity site, thereby linking motor assembly to zipcode.

A single molecule approach to mRNA transport by a class V myosin

mRNA localization ensures correct spatial and temporal control of protein synthesis in the cell. We show that an in vitro single molecule approach, using purified recombinant full-length proteins and synthesized mRNA, provides insight into the mechanism by which localizing mRNAs are carried to their destination. A messenger ribonucleoprotein (mRNP) complex was reconstituted from a budding yeast class V myosin motor complex (Myo4p-She3p), an mRNA-binding adaptor protein (She2p), and a localizing mRNA (ASH1). The motion of the mRNP was tracked with high spatial (∼10 nm) and temporal (70 ms) resolution. Using this "bottom-up" methodology, we show that mRNA triggers the assembly of a high affinity double-headed motor-mRNA complex that moves continuously for long distances on actin filaments at physiologic ionic strength. Without mRNA, the myosin is monomeric and unable to move continuously on actin. This finding reveals an elegant strategy to ensure that only cargo-bound motors are activated for transport. Increasing the number of localization elements ("zip codes") in the mRNA enhanced both the frequency of motile events and their run length, features which likely enhance cellular localization. Future in vitro reconstitution of mRNPs with kinesin and dynein motors should similarly yield mechanistic insight into mRNA transport by microtubule-based motors.

Of social molecules: The interactive assembly of ASH1 mRNA-transport complexes in yeast

Asymmetric, motor-protein dependent transport of mRNAs and subsequent localized translation is an important mechanism of gene regulation. Due to the high complexity of such motile particles, our mechanistic understanding of mRNA localization is limited. Over the last two decades, ASH1 mRNA localization in budding yeast has served as comparably simple and accessible model system. Recent advances have helped to draw an increasingly clear picture on the molecular mechanisms governing ASH1 mRNA localization from its co-transcriptional birth to its delivery at the site of destination. These new insights help to better understand the requirement of initial nuclear mRNPs, the molecular basis of specific mRNA-cargo recognition via cis-acting RNA elements, the different stages of RNP biogenesis and reorganization, as well as activation of the motile activity upon cargo binding. We discuss these aspects in context of published findings from other model organisms.

Cargo recognition and cargo-mediated regulation of unconventional myosins

Organized motions are hallmarks of living organisms. Such motions range from collective cell movements during development and muscle contractions at the macroscopic scale all the way down to cellular cargo (e.g., various biomolecules and organelles) transportation and mechanoforce sensing at more microscopic scales. Energy required for these biological motions is almost invariably provided by cellular chemical fuels in the form of nucleotide triphosphate. Biological systems have designed a group of nanoscale engines, known as molecular motors, to convert cellular chemical fuels into mechanical energy. Molecular motors come in various forms including cytoskeleton motors (myosin, kinesin, and dynein), nucleic-acid-based motors, cellular membrane-based rotary motors, and so on. The main focus of this Account is one subfamily of actin filament-based motors called unconventional myosins (other than muscle myosin II, the remaining myosins are collectively referred to as unconventional myosins). In general, myosins can use ATP to fuel two types of mechanomotions: dynamic tethering actin filaments with various cellular compartments or structures and actin filament-based intracellular transport. In contrast to rich knowledge accumulated over many decades on ATP hydrolyzing motor heads and their interactions with actin filaments, how various myosins recognize their specific cargoes and whether and how cargoes can in return regulate functions of motors are less understood. Nonetheless, a series of biochemical and structural investigations in the past few years, including works from our own laboratory, begin to shed lights on these latter questions. Some myosins (e.g., myosin-VI) can function both as cellular transporters and as mechanical tethers. To function as a processive transporter, myosins need to form dimers or multimers. To be a mechanical tether, a monomeric myosin is sufficient. It has been shown for myosin-VI that its cellular cargo proteins can play critical roles in determining the motor properties. Dab2, an adaptor protein linking endocytic vesicles with actin-filament-bound myosin-VI, can induce the motor to form a transport competent dimer. Such a cargo-mediated dimerization mechanism has also been observed in other myosins including myosin-V and myosin-VIIa. The tail domains of myosins are very diverse both in their lengths and protein domain compositions and thus enable motors to engage a broad range of different cellular cargoes. Remarkably, the cargo binding tail of one myosin alone often can bind to multiple distinct target proteins. A series of atomic structures of myosin-V/cargo complexes solved recently reveals that the globular cargo binding tail of the motor contains a number of nonoverlapping target recognition sites for binding to its cargoes including melanophilin, vesicle adaptors RILPL2, and vesicle-bound GTPase Rab11. The structures of the MyTH4-FERM tandems from myosin-VIIa and myosin-X in complex with their respective targets reveal that MyTH4 and FERM domains extensively interact with each other forming structural and functional supramodules in both motors and demonstrate that the structurally similar MyTH4-FERM tandems of the two motors display totally different target binding modes. These structural studies have also shed light on why numerous mutations found in these myosins can cause devastating human diseases such as deafness and blindness, intellectual disabilities, immune disorders, and diabetes.

The novel proteins Rng8 and Rng9 regulate the myosin-V Myo51 during fission yeast cytokinesis

The myosin-V family of molecular motors is known to be under sophisticated regulation, but our knowledge of the roles and regulation of myosin-Vs in cytokinesis is limited. Here, we report that the myosin-V Myo51 affects contractile ring assembly and stability during fission yeast cytokinesis, and is regulated by two novel coiled-coil proteins, Rng8 and Rng9. Both rng8Δ and rng9Δ cells display similar defects as myo51Δ in cytokinesis. Rng8 and Rng9 are required for Myo51's localizations to cytoplasmic puncta, actin cables, and the contractile ring. Myo51 puncta contain multiple Myo51 molecules and walk continuously on actin filaments in rng8(+) cells, whereas Myo51 forms speckles containing only one dimer and does not move efficiently on actin tracks in rng8Δ. Consistently, Myo51 transports artificial cargos efficiently in vivo, and this activity is regulated by Rng8. Purified Rng8 and Rng9 form stable higher-order complexes. Collectively, we propose that Rng8 and Rng9 form oligomers and cluster multiple Myo51 dimers to regulate Myo51 localization and functions.

In vitro reconstitution of an mRNA-transport complex reveals mechanisms of assembly and motor activation

The budding yeast SHE mRNA-transport complex dimerizes to activate processive RNA transport, irrespective of the presence of RNA cargo, and multimerizes upon binding RNAs with multiple localization elements.

The assembly and composition of ribonucleic acid (RNA)–transporting particles for asymmetric messenger RNA (mRNA) localization is not well understood. During mitosis of budding yeast, the Swi5p-dependent HO expression (SHE) complex transports a set of mRNAs into the daughter cell. We recombinantly reconstituted the core SHE complex and assessed its properties. The cytoplasmic precomplex contains only one motor and is unable to support continuous transport. However, a defined interaction with a second, RNA-bound precomplex after its nuclear export dimerizes the motor and activates processive RNA transport. The run length observed in vitro is compatible with long-distance transport in vivo. Surprisingly, SHE complexes that either contain or lack RNA cargo show similar motility properties, demonstrating that the RNA-binding protein and not its cargo activates motility. We further show that SHE complexes have a defined size but multimerize into variable particles upon binding of RNAs with multiple localization elements. Based on these findings, we provide an estimate of number, size, and composition of such multimeric SHE particles in the cell.

Structure of a myosin•adaptor complex and pairing by cargo

Myosin 4 protein (Myo4p), one of five distinct myosins of yeast, is dedicated to cytoplasmic transport of two types of cargos, zipcoded messenger ribonucleoprotein particles (mRNPs) and tubular endoplasmic reticulum (tER). Neither cargo binds directly to Myo4p. Instead, swi5p-dependent HO expression 3 protein (She3p) serves as an "adaptor" that contains three binding modules, one for Myo4p and one each for zipcoded mRNP and tER. The assembly of a transport-competent motor complex is poorly understood. Here, we report that Myo4p•She3p forms a stable 1:2 heterotrimer in solution. In the Myo4p•She3p crystal structure, Myo4p's C-terminal domain (CTD) assumes a lobster claw-shaped form, the minor prong of which adheres to a pseudocoiled-coil region of She3p. The extensive Myo4p•She3p interactome buries 3,812 Å(2) surface area and is primarily hydrophobic. Because the Myo4p•She3p heterotrimer contains only one myosin molecule, it is not transport-competent. By stepwise reconstitution, we found a single molecule of synthetic oligonucleotide (representing the mRNA zipcode element) bound to a single tetramer of zipcode binding protein She2p to be sufficient for Myo4p•She3p dimerization. Therefore, cargo initiates cross-linking of two Myo4p•She3p heterotrimers to an ensemble that contains two myosin molecules obligatory for movement. An additional crystal structure comprising an overlapping upstream portion of She3p showed continuation of the pseudocoiled-coil structure and revealed another highly conserved surface region. We suggest this region as a candidate binding site for a yet unidentified tER ligand. We propose a model whereby zipcoded mRNP and/or tER ligands couple two Myo4p•She3p heterotrimers and thereby generate a transport-competent motor complex either for separate transport or cotransport of these two cargos.

Yeast phospholipid biosynthesis is linked to mRNA localization

Localization of mRNAs and local translation are universal features in eukaryotes and contribute to cellular asymmetry and differentiation. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, localization of mRNAs that encode membrane proteins requires the She protein machinery including the RNA-binding protein She2p as well as movement of the cortical endoplasmic reticulum (cER) to the yeast bud. In a screen for ER-specific proteins necessary for directional transport of WSC2 and EAR1 mRNAs, we have identified enzymes of the phospholipid metabolism. Loss of the phospholipid methyltransferase Cho2p, which showed the strongest impact on mRNA localization, disturbs mRNA localization as well as ER morphology and segregation due to an increase in cellular phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). Mislocalized mRNPs containing She2p co-localize with aggregated cER structures suggesting entrapment of mRNA and She2p by the elevated PE level, which is confirmed by elevated binding of She2p to PE-containing liposomes. These findings underscore the importance of ER membrane integrity in mRNA transport.

The functions and regulatory principles of mRNA intracellular trafficking

The subcellular localization of RNA molecules is a key step in the control of gene expression that impacts a broad array of biological processes in different organisms and cell types. Like other aspects of posttranscriptional gene regulation discussed in this collection of reviews, the intracellular trafficking of mRNAs is modulated by a complex regulatory code implicating specific cis-regulatory elements, RNA-binding proteins, and cofactors that function combinatorially to dictate precise localization mechanisms. In this review, we first discuss the functional benefits of transcript localization, the regulatory principles involved, and specific molecular mechanisms that have been described for a few well-characterized mRNAs. We also overview some of the emerging genomic and imaging technologies that have provided significant insights into this layer of gene regulation. Finally, we highlight examples of human diseases where defective transcript localization has been documented.

Single-molecule reconstitution of mRNA transport by a class V myosin

Molecular motors are instrumental in mRNA localization, which provides spatial and temporal control of protein expression and function. To obtain mechanistic insight into how a class V myosin transports mRNA, we performed single-molecule in vitro assays on messenger ribonucleoprotein (mRNP) complexes reconstituted from purified proteins and a localizing mRNA found in budding yeast. mRNA is required to form a stable, processive transport complex on actin--an elegant mechanism to ensure that only cargo-bound motors are motile. Increasing the number of localizing elements ('zip codes') on the mRNA, or configuring the track to resemble actin cables, enhanced run length and event frequency. In multi-zip-code mRNPs, motor separation distance varied during a run, thus showing the dynamic nature of the transport complex. Building the complexity of single-molecule in vitro assays is necessary to understand how these complexes function within cells.

Future challenges in single-molecule fluorescence and laser trap approaches to studies of molecular motors

Single-molecule analysis is a powerful modern form of biochemistry, in which individual kinetic steps of a catalytic cycle of an enzyme can be explored in exquisite detail. Both single-molecule fluorescence and single-molecule force techniques have been widely used to characterize a number of protein systems. We focus here on molecular motors as a paradigm. We describe two areas where we expect to see exciting developments in the near future: first, characterizing the coupling of force production to chemical and mechanical changes in motors, and second, understanding how multiple motors work together in the environment of the cell.

Spatial regulation of translation through RNA localization

RNA localization is a mechanism to post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression. Eukaryotic organisms ranging from fungi to mammals localize mRNAs to spatially restrict synthesis of specific proteins to distinct regions of the cytoplasm. In this review, we provide a general summary of RNA localization pathways in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Xenopus, Drosophila and mammalian neurons.

Tropomyosin is essential for processive movement of a class V myosin from budding yeast

Myosin V is an actin-based motor protein involved in intracellular cargo transport [1]. Given this physiological role, it was widely assumed that all class V myosins are processive, able to take multiple steps along actin filaments without dissociating. This notion was challenged when several class V myosins were characterized as nonprocessive in vitro, including Myo2p, the essential class V myosin from S. cerevisiae [2-6]. Myo2p moves cargo including secretory vesicles and other organelles for several microns along actin cables in vivo. This demonstrated cargo transporter must therefore either operate in small ensembles or behave processively in the cellular context. Here we show that Myo2p moves processively in vitro as a single motor when it walks on an actin track that more closely resembles the actin cables found in vivo. The key to processivity is tropomyosin: Myo2p is not processive on bare actin but highly processive on actin-tropomyosin. The major yeast tropomyosin isoform, Tpm1p, supports the most robust processivity. Tropomyosin slows the rate of MgADP release, thus increasing the time the motor spends strongly attached to actin. This is the first example of tropomyosin switching a motor from nonprocessive to processive motion on actin.

Assembly of mRNA-protein complexes for directional mRNA transport in eukaryotes--an overview

At all steps from transcription to translation, RNA-binding proteins play important roles in determining mRNA function. Initially it was believed that for the vast majority of transcripts the role of RNA-binding proteins is limited to general functions such as splicing and translation. However, work from recent years showed that members of this class of proteins also recognize several mRNAs via cis-acting elements for their incorporation into large motor-containing particles. These particles are transported to distant subcellular sites, where they become subsequently translated. This process, called mRNA localization, occurs along microtubules or actin filaments, and involves kinesins, dyneins, as well as myosins. Although mRNA localization has been detected in a large number of organisms from fungi to humans, the underlying molecular machineries are not well understood. In this review we will outline general principles of mRNA localization and highlight three examples, for which a comparably large body of information is available. The first example is She2p/She3p-dependent localization of ASH1 mRNA in budding yeast. It is particularly well suited to highlight the interdependence between different steps of mRNA localization. The second example is Staufen-dependent localization of oskar mRNA in the Drosophila embryo, for which the importance of nuclear events for cytoplasmic localization and translational control has been clearly demonstrated. The third example summarizes Egalitarian/Bicaudal D-dependent mRNA transport events in the oocyte and embryo of Drosophila. We will highlight general themes and differences, point to similarities in other model systems, and raise open questions that might be answered in the coming years.

Plant-Specific Myosin XI, a Molecular Perspective

In eukaryotic cells, organelle movement, positioning, and communications are critical for maintaining cellular functions and are highly regulated by intracellular trafficking. Directional movement of motor proteins along the cytoskeleton is one of the key regulators of such trafficking. Most plants have developed a unique actin-myosin system for intracellular trafficking. Although the composition of myosin motors in angiosperms is limited to plant-specific myosin classes VIII and XI, there are large families of myosins, especially in class XI, suggesting functional diversification among class XI members. However, the molecular properties and regulation of each myosin XI member remains unclear. To achieve a better understanding of the plant-specific actin-myosin system, the characterization of myosin XI members at the molecular level is essential. In the first half of this review, we summarize the molecular properties of tobacco 175-kDa myosin XI, and in the later half, we focus on myosin XI members in Arabidopsis thaliana. Through detailed comparison of the functional domains of these myosins with the functional domain of myosin V, we look for possible diversification in enzymatic and mechanical properties among myosin XI members concomitant with their regulation.

Principles of mRNA transport in yeast

mRNA localization and localized translation is a common mechanism by which cellular asymmetry is achieved. In higher eukaryotes the mRNA transport machinery is required for such diverse processes as stem cell division and neuronal plasticity. Because mRNA localization in metazoans is highly complex, studies at the molecular level have proven to be cumbersome. However, active mRNA transport has also been reported in fungi including Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Ustilago maydis and Candida albicans, in which these events are less difficult to study. Amongst them, budding yeast S. cerevisiae has yielded mechanistic insights that exceed our understanding of other mRNA localization events to date. In contrast to most reviews, we refrain here from summarizing mRNA localization events from different organisms. Instead we give an in-depth account of ASH1 mRNA localization in budding yeast. This approach is particularly suited to providing a more holistic view of the interconnection between the individual steps of mRNA localization, from transcriptional events to cytoplasmic mRNA transport and localized translation. Because of our advanced mechanistic understanding of mRNA localization in yeast, the present review may also be informative for scientists working, for example, on mRNA localization in embryogenesis or in neurons.