1
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Viar GA, Pigino G. Tubulin posttranslational modifications through the lens of new technologies. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2024; 88:102362. [PMID: 38701611 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2024.102362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
The Tubulin Code revolutionizes our understanding of microtubule dynamics and functions, proposing a nuanced system governed by tubulin isotypes, posttranslational modifications (PTMs) and microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs). Tubulin isotypes, diverse across species, contribute structural complexity, and are thought to influence microtubule functions. PTMs encode dynamic information on microtubules, which are read by several microtubule interacting proteins and impact on cellular processes. Here we discuss recent technological and methodological advances, such as in genome engineering, live cell imaging, expansion microscopy, and cryo-electron microscopy that reveal new elements and levels of complexity of the tubulin code, including new modifying enzymes and nanopatterns of PTMs on individual microtubules. The Tubulin Code's exploration holds transformative potential, guiding therapeutic strategies and illuminating connections to diseases like cancer and neurodegenerative disorders, underscoring its relevance in decoding fundamental cellular language.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gaia Pigino
- Human Technopole, via Rita Levi Montalcini 1, Milan, Italy.
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2
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Lian YL, Lin YC. The emerging tools for precisely manipulating microtubules. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2024; 88:102360. [PMID: 38640790 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2024.102360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
Cells generate a highly diverse microtubule network to carry out different activities. This network is comprised of distinct tubulin isotypes, tubulins with different post-translational modifications, and many microtubule-based structures. Defects in this complex system cause numerous human disorders. However, how different microtubule subtypes in this network regulate cellular architectures and activities remains largely unexplored. Emerging tools such as photosensitive pharmaceuticals, chemogenetics, and optogenetics enable the spatiotemporal manipulation of structures, dynamics, post-translational modifications, and cross-linking with actin filaments in target microtubule subtypes. This review summarizes the design rationale and applications of these new approaches and aims to provide a roadmap for researchers navigating the intricacies of microtubule dynamics and their post-translational modifications in cellular contexts, thereby opening new avenues for therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yen-Ling Lian
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, 30013, Taiwan.
| | - Yu-Chun Lin
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, 30013, Taiwan; Department of Medical Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, 30013, Taiwan.
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3
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Bonet-Ponce L, Tegicho T, Beilina A, Kluss JH, Li Y, Cookson MR. Opposing actions of JIP4 and RILPL1 provide antagonistic motor force to dynamically regulate membrane reformation during lysosomal tubulation/sorting driven by LRRK2. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.02.587808. [PMID: 38903076 PMCID: PMC11188082 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.02.587808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
Lysosomes are dynamic cellular structures that adaptively remodel their membrane in response to stimuli, including membrane damage. We previously uncovered a process we term LYTL (LYsosomal Tubulation/sorting driven by Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 [LRRK2]), wherein damaged lysosomes generate tubules sorted into mobile vesicles. LYTL is orchestrated by the Parkinson's disease-associated kinase LRRK2 that recruits the motor adaptor protein and RHD family member JIP4 to lysosomes via phosphorylated RAB proteins. To identify new players involved in LYTL, we performed unbiased proteomics on isolated lysosomes after LRRK2 kinase inhibition. Our results demonstrate that there is recruitment of RILPL1 to ruptured lysosomes via LRRK2 activity to promote phosphorylation of RAB proteins at the lysosomal surface. RILPL1, which is also a member of the RHD family, enhances the clustering of LRRK2-positive lysosomes in the perinuclear area and causes retraction of LYTL tubules, in contrast to JIP4 which promotes LYTL tubule extension. Mechanistically, RILPL1 binds to p150Glued, a dynactin subunit, facilitating the transport of lysosomes and tubules to the minus end of microtubules. Further characterization of the tubulation process revealed that LYTL tubules move along tyrosinated microtubules, with tubulin tyrosination proving essential for tubule elongation. In summary, our findings emphasize the dynamic regulation of LYTL tubules by two distinct RHD proteins and pRAB effectors, serving as opposing motor adaptor proteins: JIP4, promoting tubulation via kinesin, and RILPL1, facilitating tubule retraction through dynein/dynactin. We infer that the two opposing processes generate a metastable lysosomal membrane deformation that facilitates dynamic tubulation events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Bonet-Ponce
- Department of Neurology, Wexner Medical Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 43210, USA
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA
| | - Tsion Tegicho
- Department of Neurology, Wexner Medical Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 43210, USA
| | - Alexandra Beilina
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA
| | - Jillian H. Kluss
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA
| | - Yan Li
- Proteomic Core Facility, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA
| | - Mark R. Cookson
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA
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4
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Ziak J, Dorskind JM, Trigg B, Sudarsanam S, Jin XO, Hand RA, Kolodkin AL. Microtubule-binding protein MAP1B regulates interstitial axon branching of cortical neurons via the tubulin tyrosination cycle. EMBO J 2024; 43:1214-1243. [PMID: 38388748 PMCID: PMC10987652 DOI: 10.1038/s44318-024-00050-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Regulation of directed axon guidance and branching during development is essential for the generation of neuronal networks. However, the molecular mechanisms that underlie interstitial (or collateral) axon branching in the mammalian brain remain unresolved. Here, we investigate interstitial axon branching in vivo using an approach for precise labeling of layer 2/3 callosal projection neurons (CPNs). This method allows for quantitative analysis of axonal morphology at high acuity and also manipulation of gene expression in well-defined temporal windows. We find that the GSK3β serine/threonine kinase promotes interstitial axon branching in layer 2/3 CPNs by releasing MAP1B-mediated inhibition of axon branching. Further, we find that the tubulin tyrosination cycle is a key downstream component of GSK3β/MAP1B signaling. These data suggest a cell-autonomous molecular regulation of cortical neuron axon morphology, in which GSK3β can release a MAP1B-mediated brake on interstitial axon branching upstream of the posttranslational tubulin code.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Ziak
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Joelle M Dorskind
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Brian Trigg
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Sriram Sudarsanam
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Xinyu O Jin
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Randal A Hand
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Prilenia Therapeutics, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Alex L Kolodkin
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.
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5
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Tang Q, Sensale S, Bond C, Xing J, Qiao A, Hugelier S, Arab A, Arya G, Lakadamyali M. Interplay between stochastic enzyme activity and microtubule stability drives detyrosination enrichment on microtubule subsets. Curr Biol 2023; 33:5169-5184.e8. [PMID: 37979580 PMCID: PMC10843832 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.10.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/20/2023]
Abstract
Microtubules in cells consist of functionally diverse subpopulations carrying distinct post-translational modifications (PTMs). Akin to the histone code, the tubulin code regulates a myriad of microtubule functions, ranging from intracellular transport to chromosome segregation. However, how individual PTMs only occur on subsets of microtubules to contribute to microtubule specialization is not well understood. In particular, microtubule detyrosination, the removal of the C-terminal tyrosine on α-tubulin subunits, marks the stable population of microtubules and modifies how microtubules interact with other microtubule-associated proteins to regulate a wide range of cellular processes. Previously, we found that in certain cell types, only ∼30% of microtubules are highly enriched with the detyrosination mark and that detyrosination spans most of the length of a microtubule, often adjacent to a completely tyrosinated microtubule. How the activity of a cytosolic detyrosinase, vasohibin (VASH), leads to only a small subpopulation of highly detyrosinated microtubules is unclear. Here, using quantitative super-resolution microscopy, we visualized nascent microtubule detyrosination events in cells consisting of 1-3 detyrosinated α-tubulin subunits after nocodazole washout. Microtubule detyrosination accumulates slowly and in a dispersed pattern across the microtubule length. By visualizing single molecules of VASH in live cells, we found that VASH engages with microtubules stochastically on a short timescale, suggesting limited removal of tyrosine per interaction, consistent with the super-resolution results. Combining these quantitative imaging results with simulations incorporating parameters from our experiments, we provide evidence for a stochastic model for cells to establish a subset of detyrosinated microtubules via a detyrosination-stabilization feedback mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Tang
- Department of Physiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Sebastian Sensale
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA; Department of Physics, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH 44115-2214, USA.
| | - Charles Bond
- Department of Physiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jiazheng Xing
- Department of Physiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Andy Qiao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Siewert Hugelier
- Department of Physiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Arian Arab
- Department of Physiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Gaurav Arya
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Melike Lakadamyali
- Department of Physiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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6
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McKenna ED, Sarbanes SL, Cummings SW, Roll-Mecak A. The Tubulin Code, from Molecules to Health and Disease. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2023; 39:331-361. [PMID: 37843925 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-030123-032748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
Microtubules are essential dynamic polymers composed of α/β-tubulin heterodimers. They support intracellular trafficking, cell division, cellular motility, and other essential cellular processes. In many species, both α-tubulin and β-tubulin are encoded by multiple genes with distinct expression profiles and functionality. Microtubules are further diversified through abundant posttranslational modifications, which are added and removed by a suite of enzymes to form complex, stereotyped cellular arrays. The genetic and chemical diversity of tubulin constitute a tubulin code that regulates intrinsic microtubule properties and is read by cellular effectors, such as molecular motors and microtubule-associated proteins, to provide spatial and temporal specificity to microtubules in cells. In this review, we synthesize the rapidly expanding tubulin code literature and highlight limitations and opportunities for the field. As complex microtubule arrays underlie essential physiological processes, a better understanding of how cells employ the tubulin code has important implications for human disease ranging from cancer to neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth D McKenna
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
| | - Stephanie L Sarbanes
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
| | - Steven W Cummings
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
| | - Antonina Roll-Mecak
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, USA;
- Biochemistry and Biophysics Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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7
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Yue Y, Hotta T, Higaki T, Verhey KJ, Ohi R. Microtubule detyrosination by VASH1/SVBP is regulated by the conformational state of tubulin in the lattice. Curr Biol 2023; 33:4111-4123.e7. [PMID: 37716348 PMCID: PMC10592207 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.07.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/18/2023]
Abstract
Tubulin, a heterodimer of α- and β-tubulin, is a GTPase that assembles into microtubule (MT) polymers whose dynamic properties are intimately coupled to nucleotide hydrolysis. In cells, the organization and dynamics of MTs are further tuned by post-translational modifications (PTMs), which control the ability of MT-associated proteins (MAPs) and molecular motors to engage MTs. Detyrosination is a PTM of α-tubulin, wherein its C-terminal tyrosine residue is enzymatically removed by either the vasohibin (VASH) or MT-associated tyrosine carboxypeptidase (MATCAP) peptidases. How these enzymes generate specific patterns of MT detyrosination in cells is not known. Here, we use a novel antibody-based probe to visualize the formation of detyrosinated MTs in real time and employ single-molecule imaging of VASH1 bound to its regulatory partner small-vasohibin binding protein (SVBP) to understand the process of MT detyrosination in vitro and in cells. We demonstrate that the activity, but not binding, of VASH1/SVBP is much greater on mimics of guanosine triphosphate (GTP)-MTs than on guanosine diphosphate (GDP)-MTs. Given emerging data showing that tubulin subunits in GTP-MTs are in expanded conformation relative to tubulin subunits in GDP-MTs, we reasoned that the lattice conformation of MTs is a key factor that gates the activity of VASH1/SVBP. We show that Taxol, a drug known to expand the MT lattice, promotes MT detyrosination and that CAMSAP2 and CAMSAP3 are two MAPs that spatially regulate detyrosination in cells. Collectively, our work shows that VASH1/SVBP detyrosination is regulated by the conformational state of tubulin in the MT lattice and that this is spatially determined in cells by the activity of MAPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yue
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Takashi Hotta
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Takumi Higaki
- Faculty of Advanced Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan; International Research Organization in Advanced Science and Technology, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan
| | - Kristen J Verhey
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Ryoma Ohi
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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8
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Ziak J, Dorskind J, Trigg B, Sudarsanam S, Hand R, Kolodkin AL. MAP1B Regulates Cortical Neuron Interstitial Axon Branching Through the Tubulin Tyrosination Cycle. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.10.02.560024. [PMID: 37873083 PMCID: PMC10592918 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.02.560024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Regulation of directed axon guidance and branching during development is essential for the generation of neuronal networks. However, the molecular mechanisms that underlie interstitial axon branching in the mammalian brain remain unresolved. Here, we investigate interstitial axon branching in vivo using an approach for precise labeling of layer 2/3 callosal projection neurons (CPNs), allowing for quantitative analysis of axonal morphology at high acuity and also manipulation of gene expression in well-defined temporal windows. We find that the GSK3β serine/threonine kinase promotes interstitial axon branching in layer 2/3 CPNs by releasing MAP1B-mediated inhibition of axon branching. Further, we find that the tubulin tyrosination cycle is a key downstream component of GSK3β/MAP1B signaling. We propose that MAP1B functions as a brake on axon branching that can be released by GSK3β activation, regulating the tubulin code and thereby playing an integral role in sculpting cortical neuron axon morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Ziak
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Joelle Dorskind
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Boston, MA
| | - Brian Trigg
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Sriram Sudarsanam
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Randal Hand
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205
- Prilenia Therapeutics, Boston, MA
| | - Alex L. Kolodkin
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205
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9
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Jansen KI, Iwanski MK, Burute M, Kapitein LC. A live-cell marker to visualize the dynamics of stable microtubules throughout the cell cycle. J Cell Biol 2023; 222:e202106105. [PMID: 36880745 PMCID: PMC9998657 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202106105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton underlies processes such as intracellular transport and cell division. Immunolabeling for posttranslational modifications of tubulin has revealed the presence of different MT subsets, which are believed to differ in stability and function. Whereas dynamic MTs can readily be studied using live-cell plus-end markers, the dynamics of stable MTs have remained obscure due to a lack of tools to directly visualize these MTs in living cells. Here, we present StableMARK (Stable Microtubule-Associated Rigor-Kinesin), a live-cell marker to visualize stable MTs with high spatiotemporal resolution. We demonstrate that a rigor mutant of Kinesin-1 selectively binds to stable MTs without affecting MT organization and organelle transport. These MTs are long-lived, undergo continuous remodeling, and often do not depolymerize upon laser-based severing. Using this marker, we could visualize the spatiotemporal regulation of MT stability before, during, and after cell division. Thus, this live-cell marker enables the exploration of different MT subsets and how they contribute to cellular organization and transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klara I. Jansen
- Department of Biology, Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Malina K. Iwanski
- Department of Biology, Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Mithila Burute
- Department of Biology, Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Lukas C. Kapitein
- Department of Biology, Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
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10
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Iwanski MK, Kapitein LC. Cellular cartography: Towards an atlas of the neuronal microtubule cytoskeleton. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1052245. [PMID: 37035244 PMCID: PMC10073685 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1052245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Microtubules, one of the major components of the cytoskeleton, play a crucial role during many aspects of neuronal development and function, such as neuronal polarization and axon outgrowth. Consequently, the microtubule cytoskeleton has been implicated in many neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. The polar nature of microtubules is quintessential for their function, allowing them to serve as tracks for long-distance, directed intracellular transport by kinesin and dynein motors. Most of these motors move exclusively towards either the plus- or minus-end of a microtubule and some have been shown to have a preference for either dynamic or stable microtubules, those bearing a particular post-translational modification or those decorated by a specific microtubule-associated protein. Thus, it becomes important to consider the interplay of these features and their combinatorial effects on transport, as well as how different types of microtubules are organized in the cell. Here, we discuss microtubule subsets in terms of tubulin isotypes, tubulin post-translational modifications, microtubule-associated proteins, microtubule stability or dynamicity, and microtubule orientation. We highlight techniques used to study these features of the microtubule cytoskeleton and, using the information from these studies, try to define the composition, role, and organization of some of these subsets in neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lukas C. Kapitein
- Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
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11
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Mendon N, Ganie RA, Kesarwani S, Dileep D, Sasi S, Lama P, Chandra A, Sirajuddin M. Nanobody derived using a peptide epitope from the spike protein receptor-binding motif inhibits entry of SARS-CoV-2 variants. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:102732. [PMID: 36423687 PMCID: PMC9678391 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of new escape mutants of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has escalated its penetration among the human population and has reinstated its status as a global pandemic. Therefore, developing effective antiviral therapy against emerging SARS-CoV variants and other viruses in a short period becomes essential. Blocking SARS-CoV-2 entry into human host cells by disrupting the spike glycoprotein-angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 interaction has already been exploited for vaccine development and monoclonal antibody therapy. Unlike the previous reports, our study used a nine-amino acid peptide from the receptor-binding motif of the spike protein as an epitope. We report the identification of an efficacious nanobody N1.2 that blocks the entry of pseudovirus-containing SARS-CoV-2 spike as the surface glycoprotein. Moreover, using mCherry fluorescence-based reporter assay, we observe a more potent neutralizing effect against both the hCoV19 (Wuhan/WIV04/2019) and the Omicron (BA.1) pseudotyped spike virus with a bivalent version of the N1.2 nanobody. In summary, our study presents a rapid and efficient methodology to use peptide sequences from a protein-receptor interaction interface as epitopes for screening nanobodies against potential pathogenic targets. We propose that this approach can also be widely extended to target other viruses and pathogens in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nivya Mendon
- Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Disease, Institute for Stem Cell Science and Regenerative Medicine, GKVK Campus, Bengaluru, India; Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - Rayees A Ganie
- Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Disease, Institute for Stem Cell Science and Regenerative Medicine, GKVK Campus, Bengaluru, India; Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - Shubham Kesarwani
- Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Disease, Institute for Stem Cell Science and Regenerative Medicine, GKVK Campus, Bengaluru, India
| | - Drisya Dileep
- Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Disease, Institute for Stem Cell Science and Regenerative Medicine, GKVK Campus, Bengaluru, India; The University of Trans-Disciplinary Health Sciences and Technology (TDU), Bengaluru, India
| | - Sarika Sasi
- Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Disease, Institute for Stem Cell Science and Regenerative Medicine, GKVK Campus, Bengaluru, India
| | - Prakash Lama
- Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Disease, Institute for Stem Cell Science and Regenerative Medicine, GKVK Campus, Bengaluru, India; Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - Anchal Chandra
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, TIFR, GKVK Campus, Bengaluru, India
| | - Minhajuddin Sirajuddin
- Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Disease, Institute for Stem Cell Science and Regenerative Medicine, GKVK Campus, Bengaluru, India.
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12
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Figueroa AC, Díaz MS, Alasino RV, Yang P, Soria NW, Beltramo DM. Expression and localization of tubulin isotypes and its mRNAs during Thecaphora frezii developments. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2022; 98:6753202. [PMID: 36208160 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiac121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Thecaphora frezii is a phytopathogenic fungus that infects Arachys hypogaea L. and produces peanut smut. It has three ontological stages teliospores, basidiospores, and hyphae. Microtubules are cellular structures that participate in various important cellular processes. In this work, we analyzed the presence and location of α-tubulin isotypes and enzymes that participate in tyrosination-detyrosination in the three stages of T. frezii. Although both tyrosinated and detyrosinated tubulin seem to be associated with a membrane fraction component that gives it a similar behavior to integral proteins, in the soluble cytosolic fraction, only detyrosinated tubulin was detected, not tyrosinated tubulin. The presence of α-tubulin was not detected using the monoclonal antibody DM1A as neither acetylated tubulin. The RNA-Seq analysis showed the presence of α, β, and γ-tubulins and the genes that codes for tyrosine-tubulin ligase and cytosolic carboxypeptidase 1, enzymes that are involved in post-translational modification processes. These sequences showed a high percentage of identity and homology with Ustilago maydis, Thecaphora thlaspeos, and Anthracocystis flocculosa. This is the first report for tubulins subpopulations and the cellular distribution in T. frezii, which together with the data obtained by RNA-Seq contribute to the knowledge of the pathogen, which will allow the development of control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Cristina Figueroa
- Centro de Excelencia en Productos y Procesos de Córdoba - CEPROCOR- Complejo Hospitalario Santa María de Punilla X6154, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - María Soledad Díaz
- Centro de Excelencia en Productos y Procesos de Córdoba - CEPROCOR- Complejo Hospitalario Santa María de Punilla X6154, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Roxana Valeria Alasino
- Centro de Excelencia en Productos y Procesos de Córdoba - CEPROCOR- Complejo Hospitalario Santa María de Punilla X6154, Córdoba, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de Argentina, - CONICET, Argentina
| | - Pablo Yang
- Cátedra de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Unidad Asociada al CONICET: Área de Cs. Agrarias, Ingeniería, Cs. Biológicas, Universidad Católica de Córdoba, Avenida Armada Argentina 3555, X5016DHK, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Néstor Walter Soria
- Cátedra de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Unidad Asociada al CONICET: Área de Cs. Agrarias, Ingeniería, Cs. Biológicas, Universidad Católica de Córdoba, Avenida Armada Argentina 3555, X5016DHK, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Dante Miguel Beltramo
- Centro de Excelencia en Productos y Procesos de Córdoba - CEPROCOR- Complejo Hospitalario Santa María de Punilla X6154, Córdoba, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de Argentina, - CONICET, Argentina.,Cátedra de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Unidad Asociada al CONICET: Área de Cs. Agrarias, Ingeniería, Cs. Biológicas, Universidad Católica de Córdoba, Avenida Armada Argentina 3555, X5016DHK, Córdoba, Argentina
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13
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Meiring JCM, Grigoriev I, Nijenhuis W, Kapitein LC, Akhmanova A. Opto-katanin, an optogenetic tool for localized, microtubule disassembly. Curr Biol 2022; 32:4660-4674.e6. [PMID: 36174574 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Microtubules are cytoskeletal polymers that separate chromosomes during mitosis and serve as rails for intracellular transport and organelle positioning. Manipulation of microtubules is widely used in cell and developmental biology, but tools for precise subcellular spatiotemporal control of microtubules are currently lacking. Here, we describe a light-activated system for localized recruitment of the microtubule-severing enzyme katanin. This system, named opto-katanin, uses targeted illumination with blue light to induce rapid, localized, and reversible microtubule depolymerization. This tool allows precise clearing of a subcellular region of microtubules while preserving the rest of the microtubule network, demonstrating that regulation of katanin recruitment to microtubules is sufficient to control its severing activity. The tool is not toxic in the absence of blue light and can be used to disassemble both dynamic and stable microtubules in primary neurons as well as in dividing cells. We show that opto-katanin can be used to locally block vesicle transport and to clarify the dependence of organelle morphology and dynamics on microtubules. Specifically, our data indicate that microtubules are not required for the maintenance of the Golgi stacks or the tubules of the endoplasmic reticulum but are needed for the formation of new membrane tubules. Finally, we demonstrate that this tool can be applied to study the contribution of microtubules to cell mechanics by showing that microtubule bundles can exert forces constricting the nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joyce C M Meiring
- Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan, Utrecht 3584 CS, the Netherlands
| | - Ilya Grigoriev
- Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan, Utrecht 3584 CS, the Netherlands
| | - Wilco Nijenhuis
- Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan, Utrecht 3584 CS, the Netherlands; Center for Living Technologies, Eindhoven-Wageningen-Utrecht Alliance, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht 3584 CB, the Netherlands
| | - Lukas C Kapitein
- Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan, Utrecht 3584 CS, the Netherlands; Center for Living Technologies, Eindhoven-Wageningen-Utrecht Alliance, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht 3584 CB, the Netherlands
| | - Anna Akhmanova
- Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan, Utrecht 3584 CS, the Netherlands.
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14
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Liu GY, Chen S, Lee G, Shaiv K, Chen P, Cheng H, Hong S, Yang W, Huang S, Chang Y, Wang H, Kao C, Sun P, Chao M, Lee Y, Tang M, Lin Y. Precise control of microtubule disassembly in living cells. EMBO J 2022; 41:e110472. [PMID: 35686621 PMCID: PMC9340485 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2021110472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Microtubules tightly regulate various cellular activities. Our understanding of microtubules is largely based on experiments using microtubule-targeting agents, which, however, are insufficient to dissect the dynamic mechanisms of specific microtubule populations, due to their slow effects on the entire pool of microtubules. To overcome this technological limitation, we have used chemo and optogenetics to disassemble specific microtubule subtypes, including tyrosinated microtubules, primary cilia, mitotic spindles, and intercellular bridges, by rapidly recruiting engineered microtubule-cleaving enzymes onto target microtubules in a reversible manner. Using this approach, we show that acute microtubule disassembly swiftly halts vesicular trafficking and lysosomal dynamics. It also immediately triggers Golgi and ER reorganization and slows the fusion/fission of mitochondria without affecting mitochondrial membrane potential. In addition, cell rigidity is increased after microtubule disruption owing to increased contractile stress fibers. Microtubule disruption furthermore prevents cell division, but does not cause cell death during interphase. Overall, the reported tools facilitate detailed analysis of how microtubules precisely regulate cellular architecture and functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Y Liu
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Shiau‐Chi Chen
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Gang‐Hui Lee
- Department of Physiology, College of MedicineNational Cheng Kung UniversityTainanTaiwan
- International Center for Wound Repair and RegenerationNational Cheng Kung UniversityTainanTaiwan
| | - Kritika Shaiv
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Pin‐Yu Chen
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Hsuan Cheng
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Shi‐Rong Hong
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Wen‐Ting Yang
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Shih‐Han Huang
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Ya‐Chu Chang
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Hsien‐Chu Wang
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Ching‐Lin Kao
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Pin‐Chiao Sun
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Ming‐Hong Chao
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Yian‐Ying Lee
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
| | - Ming‐Jer Tang
- Department of Physiology, College of MedicineNational Cheng Kung UniversityTainanTaiwan
- International Center for Wound Repair and RegenerationNational Cheng Kung UniversityTainanTaiwan
| | - Yu‐Chun Lin
- Institute of Molecular MedicineNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
- Department of Medical ScienceNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchuTaiwan
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15
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Bär J, Popp Y, Bucher M, Mikhaylova M. Direct and indirect effects of tubulin post-translational modifications on microtubule stability: Insights and regulations. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2022; 1869:119241. [PMID: 35181405 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2022.119241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Microtubules (MTs) mediate various cellular functions such as structural support, chromosome segregation, and intracellular transport. To achieve this, the pivotal properties of MTs have to be changeable and tightly controlled. This is enabled by a high variety of tubulin posttranslational modifications, which influence MT properties directly, via altering the MT lattice structurally, or indirectly by changing MT interaction partners. Here, the distinction between these direct and indirect effects of MT PTMs are exemplified by acetylation of the luminal α-tubulin K40 resulting in decreased rigidity of MTs, and by MT detyrosination which decreases interaction with depolymerizing proteins, thus causing more stable MTs. We discuss how these PTMs are reversed and regulated, e.g. on the level of enzyme transcription, localization, and activity via various signalling pathways including the conventional calcium-dependent proteases calpains and how advances in microscopy techniques and development of live-sensors facilitate the understanding of MT PTM interaction and effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Bär
- RG Optobiology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstr. 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany; Guest Group "Neuronal Protein Transport", Center for Molecular Neurobiology, ZMNH, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Yannes Popp
- RG Optobiology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstr. 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany; Guest Group "Neuronal Protein Transport", Center for Molecular Neurobiology, ZMNH, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Michael Bucher
- RG Optobiology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstr. 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany; Guest Group "Neuronal Protein Transport", Center for Molecular Neurobiology, ZMNH, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Marina Mikhaylova
- RG Optobiology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstr. 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany; Guest Group "Neuronal Protein Transport", Center for Molecular Neurobiology, ZMNH, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Falkenried 94, 20251 Hamburg, Germany.
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16
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Inaba H, Matsuura K. Modulation of Microtubule Properties and Functions by Encapsulation of Nanomaterials Using a Tau-Derived Peptide. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2021. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.20210202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Inaba
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8552, Japan
- Centre for Research on Green Sustainable Chemistry, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8552, Japan
| | - Kazunori Matsuura
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8552, Japan
- Centre for Research on Green Sustainable Chemistry, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8552, Japan
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17
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Yang WT, Hong SR, He K, Ling K, Shaiv K, Hu J, Lin YC. The Emerging Roles of Axonemal Glutamylation in Regulation of Cilia Architecture and Functions. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:622302. [PMID: 33748109 PMCID: PMC7970040 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.622302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cilia, which either generate coordinated motion or sense environmental cues and transmit corresponding signals to the cell body, are highly conserved hair-like structures that protrude from the cell surface among diverse species. Disruption of ciliary functions leads to numerous human disorders, collectively referred to as ciliopathies. Cilia are mechanically supported by axonemes, which are composed of microtubule doublets. It has been recognized for several decades that tubulins in axonemes undergo glutamylation, a post-translational polymodification, that conjugates glutamic acid chains onto the C-terminal tail of tubulins. However, the physiological roles of axonemal glutamylation were not uncovered until recently. This review will focus on how cells modulate glutamylation on ciliary axonemes and how axonemal glutamylation regulates cilia architecture and functions, as well as its physiological importance in human health. We will also discuss the conventional and emerging new strategies used to manipulate glutamylation in cilia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ting Yang
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, National Tsing Hua University, HsinChu City, Taiwan
| | - Shi-Rong Hong
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, National Tsing Hua University, HsinChu City, Taiwan
| | - Kai He
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Kun Ling
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Kritika Shaiv
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, National Tsing Hua University, HsinChu City, Taiwan
| | - JingHua Hu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
- Mayo Clinic Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Yu-Chun Lin
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, National Tsing Hua University, HsinChu City, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Science, National Tsing Hua University, HsinChu City, Taiwan
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18
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Kopf A, Kiermaier E. Dynamic Microtubule Arrays in Leukocytes and Their Role in Cell Migration and Immune Synapse Formation. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:635511. [PMID: 33634136 PMCID: PMC7900162 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.635511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The organization of microtubule arrays in immune cells is critically important for a properly operating immune system. Leukocytes are white blood cells of hematopoietic origin, which exert effector functions of innate and adaptive immune responses. During these processes the microtubule cytoskeleton plays a crucial role for establishing cell polarization and directed migration, targeted secretion of vesicles for T cell activation and cellular cytotoxicity as well as the maintenance of cell integrity. Considering this large spectrum of distinct effector functions, leukocytes require flexible microtubule arrays, which timely and spatially reorganize allowing the cells to accommodate their specific tasks. In contrast to other specialized cell types, which typically nucleate microtubule filaments from non-centrosomal microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs), leukocytes mainly utilize centrosomes for sites of microtubule nucleation. Yet, MTOC localization as well as microtubule organization and dynamics are highly plastic in leukocytes thus allowing the cells to adapt to different environmental constraints. Here we summarize our current knowledge on microtubule organization and dynamics during immune processes and how these microtubule arrays affect immune cell effector functions. We particularly highlight emerging concepts of microtubule involvement during maintenance of cell shape and physical coherence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aglaja Kopf
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Rare and Undiagnosed Diseases, Vienna, Austria
| | - Eva Kiermaier
- Life and Medical Sciences Institute, Immune and Tumor Biology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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