Principles underlying the exchanges of K and Na ions across cell membranes

Na,K-ATPase: A murzyme facilitating thermodynamic equilibriums at the membrane-interface

The redox metabolic paradigm of murburn concept advocates that diffusible reactive species (DRS, particularly oxygen-centric radicals) are mainstays of physiology, and not mere pathological manifestations. The murburn purview of cellular function also integrates the essential principles of bioenergetics, thermogenesis, homeostasis, electrophysiology, and coherence. In this context, any enzyme that generates/modulates/utilizes/sustains DRS functionality is called a murzyme. We have demonstrated that several water-soluble (peroxidases, lactate dehydrogenase, hemogoblin, etc.) and membrane-embedded (Complexes I-V in mitochondria, Photosystems I/II in chloroplasts, rhodopsin/transducin in rod cells, etc.) proteins serve as murzymes. The membrane protein of Na,K-ATPase (NKA, also known as sodium-potassium pump) is the focus of this article, owing to its centrality in neuro-cardio-musculo electrophysiology. Herein, via a series of critical queries starting from the geometric/spatio-temporal considerations of diffusion/mass transfer of solutes in cells to an update on structural/distributional features of NKA in diverse cellular systems, and from various mechanistic aspects of ion-transport (thermodynamics, osmoregulation, evolutionary dictates, etc.) to assays/explanations of inhibitory principles like cardiotonic steroids (CTS), we first highlight some unresolved problems in the field. Thereafter, we propose and apply a minimalist murburn model of trans-membrane ion-differentiation by NKA to address the physiological inhibitory effects of trans-dermal peptide, lithium ion, volatile anesthetics, confirmed interfacial DRS + proton modulators like nitrophenolics and unsaturated fatty acid, and the diverse classes of molecules like CTS, arginine, oximes, etc. These explanations find a pan-systemic connectivity with the inhibitions/uncouplings of other membrane proteins in cells.

Possible mediators of functional hyperaemia in skeletal muscle

1. (a) In experiments on gastrocnemius muscles of the cat performing external work, the work was graded, either by altering the intensity of motor nerve stimulation or by changing the load. Only under the former conditions was the steady-state increase in blood flow conductance at all consistently related to the work performed. (b) In such experiments, efflux of inorganic phosphate and of potassium were closely correlated with the increase in vascular conductance, in the form of a typical dose-response curve. There was no significant relationship between changes in plasma osmolarity and conductance. 2. (a) Whereas most soleus muscles in the cat exhibit virtually no functional vasodilation, those with a relatively low resting flow tend to do so. (b) There was a relationship between the vasodilation, if any, and release of phosphate in fifteen out of seventeen experiments on soleus muscles. No relationship was found between any release of potassium or change of plasma osmolarity, and absence or extent of functional vasodilation. 3. (a) Terminal arterioles and collecting venules in the rat's spinotrapezius muscle were observed in vivo under low power magnification while the muscle was bathed in various test solutions, so that the vasodilator properties of hyperosmolar solutions, potassium and phosphate could be studied. (b) The dilator effect of hyperosmolar solutions was much the weakest: solutions of 340 m-osmole/kg elicited the largest responses, but these seldom exceeded 50% mM-K+ and 3.2--6.4 mM-Pi (as NaH2PO4) elicited 25--50% of maximum dilation, while 9--10 mM-K+ and 16--20 mM-Pi dilated arterial vessels fully. The latency to onset of dilation was shortest (5 sec) with Pi and longest (15 sec) with K+. 4. These findings, together with those already in the literature, lead to the conclusions that (a) hypersomolarity is unlikely to be in an important factor initiating or maintaining functional hyperaemia in skeletal muscle, (b) while K+ release may contribute in fast muscle it can hardly be the factor initiating the response, and (c) inorganic phosphate is the only substance tested so far whose efflux is consistently related to the vascular response in all muscles under a variety of experimental conditions, and whose efficacy as a vasodilator seems adequate.

The stimulus secretion coupling of glucose-induced insulin release. XXVII. Effect of glucose on K+ fluxes in isolated islets

The effect of glucose upon the handling of K+ by islets of Langerhans removed from normal rats was investigated by measuring both the net uptake of 86Rb+ and its efflux from prelabelled islets. The inflow of K+ into islet cells is mediated, in part at least, by an ouabain-sensitive pump. Glucose fails to affect the inflow rate of K+, but it apparently decreases the permeability of islet cells plasma membrane to effuent K+. The glucose-induced change in permeability is a rapid and rapidly reversible phenomenon. Under steady-state conditions, it leads to an increase in the islet cells K+ pool and a decrease of its fractional turnover rate.

Movement of Inorganic Ions across the Membrane of Striated Muscle

The unidirectional fluxes of sodium, chloride, and potassium across the membrane of striated muscle cells are described under a number of experimental conditions. The results are compared with the predicted behavior of simple membranes. With the possible exception of chloride, it is concluded that the movements of these ions cannot be described without postulating variable permeabilities or a variable number of `carriers' or `sites' in the membrane.