Scrounging by foragers can resolve the paradox of enrichment

Theoretical models of predator-prey systems predict that sufficient enrichment of prey can generate large amplitude limit cycles, paradoxically causing a high risk of extinction (the paradox of enrichment). Although real ecological communities contain many gregarious species, whose foraging behaviour should be influenced by socially transmitted information, few theoretical studies have examined the possibility that social foraging might resolve this paradox. I considered a predator population in which individuals play the producer-scrounger foraging game in one-prey-one-predator and two-prey-one-predator systems. I analysed the stability of a coexisting equilibrium point in the one-prey system and that of non-equilibrium dynamics in the two-prey system. The results revealed that social foraging could stabilize both systems, and thereby resolve the paradox of enrichment when scrounging behaviour (i.e. kleptoparasitism) is prevalent in predators. This suggests a previously neglected mechanism underlying a powerful effect of group-living animals on the sustainability of ecological communities.

Did Gause Have a Yeast Infection?

We planned to develop predator-prey models using Paramecium and yeast, but they have not been empirically examined since work by Gause in the 1930s. Therefore, we evaluated if Paramecium aurelia ingests and grows on eight yeasts. Recognising that it ingested yeasts but could not grow, we assessed if it might grow on other yeasts, by empirically parameterising a predator-prey model that relies on ingestion, not growth. Simulations were compared to P. aurelia-yeast time-series data, from Gause. We hypothesised that if the model simulated predator-prey dynamics that mimicked the original data, then possibly P. aurelia could grow on yeast; simulations did not mimic the original data. Reviewing works by Gause exposed two issues: experiments were undoubtedly contaminated with bacteria, allowing growth on bacteria, not yeast; and the population cycle data cannot be considered a self-sustaining time series, as they were manipulated by adding yeast and ciliates. We conclude that past and future work should not rely on this system, for either empirical or theoretical evaluations. Finally, although we show that P. aurelia, P. caudatum, Euplotes patella, and Blepharisma sp. cannot grow on yeast, Tetrahymena pyriformis and Colpidium striatum can; these may provide models to explore predator-prey dynamics.

L-shaped prey isocline in the Gause predator-prey experiments with a prey refuge

Predator and prey isoclines are estimated from data on yeast-protist population dynamics (Gause et al., 1936). Regression analysis shows that the prey isocline is best fitted by an L-shaped function that has a vertical and a horizontal part. The predator isocline is vertical. This shape of isoclines corresponds with the Lotka-Volterra and the Rosenzweig-MacArthur predator-prey models that assume a prey refuge. These results further support the idea that a prey refuge changes the prey isocline of predator-prey models from a horizontal to an L-shaped curve. Such a shape of the prey isocline effectively bounds amplitude of predator-prey oscillations, thus promotes species coexistence.

A role for programmed cell death in the microbial loop

The microbial loop is the conventional model by which nutrients and minerals are recycled in aquatic eco-systems. Biochemical pathways in different organisms become metabolically inter-connected such that nutrients are utilized, processed, released and re-utilized by others. The result is that unrelated individuals end up impacting each others' fitness directly through their metabolic activities. This study focused on the impact of programmed cell death (PCD) on a population's growth as well as its role in the exchange of carbon between two naturally co-occurring halophilic organisms. Flow cytometric, biochemical, ¹⁴C radioisotope tracing assays, and global transcriptomic analyses show that organic algal photosynthate released by Dunalliela salina cells undergoing PCD complements the nutritional needs of other non-PCD D. salina cells. This occurs in vitro in a carbon limited environment and enhances the growth of the population. In addition, a co-occurring heterotroph Halobacterium salinarum re-mineralizes the carbon providing elemental nutrients for the mixoheterotrophic chlorophyte. The significance of this is uncertain and the archaeon can also subsist entirely on the lysate of apoptotic algae. PCD is now well established in unicellular organisms; however its ecological relevance has been difficult to decipher. In this study we found that PCD in D. salina causes the release of organic nutrients such as glycerol, which can be used by others in the population as well as a co-occurring halophilic archaeon. H. salinarum also re-mineralizes the dissolved material promoting algal growth. PCD in D. salina was the mechanism for the flow of dissolved photosynthate between unrelated organisms. Ironically, programmed death plays a central role in an organism's own population growth and in the exchange of nutrients in the microbial loop.

DYNAMICS OF A MODEL FOR VIRULENT PHAGE T4

In this paper, the asymptotical behavior of a chemostat model for E. coli and the virulent phage T4 is analyzed. The basic reproduction number R0 is proved to be a threshold which determines the outcome of the virulent phage T4. If R0 < 1, the virus dies out; if R0 > 1, the virus persists. Sufficient conditions for the Hopf bifurcation are also established. The theoretical results show that increasing the input of nutrient will result in an increase in the equilibrium population density of the virulent bacteriophage T4, but will have no effect on the equilibrium population density of E. coli. The results also show that increasing the input of nutrient or increasing the average lytic time for the infected E. coli can destabilize the interaction between E. coli and T4.

Meta-analysis of the effects of predation on animal prey abundance: evidence from UK vertebrates

Background

Controlling vertebrate predators is one of the most widespread forms of wildlife management and it continues to cause conflict between stakeholders worldwide. It is important for managers and policy-makers to make decisions on this issue that are based on the best available scientific evidence. Therefore, it is first important to understand if there is indeed an impact of vertebrate predators on prey, and then to quantify this impact.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Using the UK as a case study, we use a meta-analytical approach to review the available evidence to assess the effect of vertebrate predation on animal prey abundance. We find a significant effect of predators on prey abundance across our studies. On average, there is a 1.6 fold increase in prey abundance in the absence of predation. However, we show significant heterogeneity in effect sizes, and discuss how the method of predator control, whether the predator is native or non-native, and aspects of study design, may be potential causes.

Conclusions/Significance

Our results allow some cautious policy recommendations to be made regarding the management of predator and prey populations. Meta-analysis is an important tool for understanding general patterns in the effect of predators on prey abundance across studies. Such an approach is especially valuable where management decisions need to be made in the absence of site-specific information.

Biotic interactions and their consequences for macroevolution: learning from the fossil record and beyond

Every organism interacts with a host of other organisms of the same and different species throughout its life. These biotic interactions have varying influences on the reproduction and dispersal of the organism, and hence also the population and species lineage to which the organism belongs. By extension, biotic interactions must contribute to the macroevolutionary patterns that we observe in the fossil record, but exactly how, when and why are research questions we have been asking before the start of the journal Paleobiology. In this contribution for Paleobiology's 50th anniversary, we present a brief overview of how paleobiologists have studied biotic interactions and their macroevolutionary consequences, recognizing paleontology's unique position to contribute data and insights to the topic of interspecies interactions. We then explore, in a semi free-form manner, what promising avenues might be open to those of us who use the fossil record to understand biotic interactions. In general, we emphasize the need for an increased effort in the understanding of ecological details, the integration of different types of information, and to strive for model-based approaches.

Evolutionary suicide

The great majority of species that lived on this earth have gone extinct. These extinctions are often explained by invoking changes in the environment, to which the species has been unable to adapt. Evolutionary suicide is an alternative explanation to such extinctions. It is an evolutionary process in which a viable population adapts in such a way that it can no longer persist. In this paper different models, where evolutionary suicide occurs are discussed, and the theory behind the phenomenon is reviewed.

A complete classification of Darwinian extinction in ecological interactions

The evolution of a population by individual-level natural selection can result in the population's extinction. Selection causes the spread of phenotypes with higher relative fitness, but at the same time, selection can also indirectly produce changes in the physical, biotic, or genotypical environment through population interactions (e.g., environment modification, interspecific interactions, and genomic conflict). Because fitness is environment dependent, this can cause mean fitness to decrease, resulting in extinction. I call this process "Darwinian extinction." Examples of Darwinian extinction include a variety of dynamics and modes of extinction, but the variation is constrained. I determine the complete classification of possible dynamics and modes of Darwinian extinction due to ecological interactions, using bifurcation theory and models with ecological and evolutionary changes occurring on different timescales. This classification is also extended to extinctions due to interactions within the population. The mode of extinction may be either sudden or gradual (requiring additional stochastic processes), and each mode has specific types of dynamics associated with it. Darwinian extinction is a robust and normal phenomenon, and this reasonably complete classification can help us understand more thoroughly its role in nature.

The Logic and Realism of the Hypothesis of Exploitation Ecosystems

Hypotheses on trophic dynamics in terrestrial ecosystems fall into two major categories: those in which plants are assumed to be invulnerable to their consumers and those in which the build-up of plant biomass is assumed to require top-down control of folivores. The hypothesis of exploitation ecosystems (EEH) belongs to the latter category and focuses particularly on the consequences of the high energetic costs of maintenance of endotherms. Carnivorous endotherms require relatively high prey densities in order to break even. Moreover, they are dependent on folivorous prey during the limiting season, at least at high latitudes. The endotherm branch of the grazing web is thus predicted to collapse from three-link trophic dynamics (carnivores → folivores → plants → inorganic resources) to two-link dynamics (folivores → plants → inorganic resources) along gradients of decreasing primary productivity. Consequently, the vegetation of cold and unproductive areas is predicted to be under intense winter grazing pressure, which prevents the accumulation of aboveground plant biomass and excludes erect woody plants. In the most extreme habitats (e.g., polar deserts and their high alpine counterparts), even folivorous endotherms are predicted to be absent, and the scanty vegetation is predicted to be structured by preemptive competition. Within temperature-determined productivity gradients, EEH is corroborated by biomass patterns, by patterns in the structure and dynamics of carnivore, folivore, and plant communities, and by experimental results. The general idea of top-down trophic dynamics is supported for other autotroph-based systems, too, but the relevance and sufficiency of the energy constraint in explaining patterns in trophic dynamics appears to be variable. Moreover, critical empirical evidence for or against the capacity of folivorous insects to regulate plant biomass has not yet been obtained. Another open question is the ability of boreal and temperate browsers, evolved in productive environments with intense predation pressure and abundance of forage, to prevent the regeneration of the least palatable tree species. There are, thus, many open questions waiting to be answered and many exciting experiments waiting to be conducted.

Effect of Prey Heterogeneity on the Response of a Model Food Chain to Resource Enrichment

We demonstrated that the presence of invulnerable prey can result in a shift in the balance between top-down and bottom-up control of a model food chain. Our model food chain consisted of the bacterium Escherichia coli and the bacteriophage T4 (a virus that feeds on E. coli) in chemostats supplied with different concentrations of glucose. The E. coli population consisted of individuals that were susceptible to predation by T4 ("edible" E. coli) and individuals that were resistant to predation by T4 ("inedible" E. coli). The equilibrium density of a heterogeneous prey population (consisting of edible and inedible E. coli) increased strongly in response to an enrichment of its resources. This response consisted of an increase in the inedible fraction of the prey population but no change in the edible fraction. In contrast, a homogeneous prey population (edible E. coli only) increased only marginally. The equilibrium density of the predator population (bacteriophage T4) did not significantly increase in response to enrichment when its prey were heterogeneous, but it increased strongly when its prey were homogeneous.

Experimental evidence for a behavior-mediated trophic cascade in a terrestrial food chain

Predators of herbivorous animals can affect plant populations by altering herbivore density, behavior, or both. To test whether the indirect effect of predators on plants arises from density or behavioral responses in a herbivore population, we experimentally examined the dynamics of terrestrial food chains comprised of old field plants, leaf-chewing grasshoppers, and spider predators in Northeast Connecticut. To separate the effects of predators on herbivore density from the effects on herbivore behavior, we created two classes of spiders: (i) risk spiders that had their feeding mouth parts glued to render them incapable of killing prey and (ii) predator spiders that remained unmanipulated. We found that the effect of predators on plants resulted from predator-induced changes in herbivore behavior (shifts in activity time and diet selection) rather than from predator-induced changes in grasshopper density. Neither predator nor risk spiders had a significant effect on grasshopper density relative to a control. This demonstrates that the behavioral response of prey to predators can have a strong impact on the dynamics of terrestrial food chains. The results make a compelling case to examine behavioral as well as density effects in theoretical and empirical research on food chain dynamics.

Safety in numbers: sophisticated vigilance by Allenby's gerbil

Since 1963, nonlinear predation theory has predicted that, at low population densities, victim species may well be mutualistic rather than competitive. Theory identifies this mutualism as a principal source of dynamic instability in the interaction. Using gerbils and trained barn owls, we conducted the first (to our knowledge) field tests of the theory's prediction of mutualism. The behavior of the gerbils confirms its existence.