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de Oliveira Rosa SA, Titon Junior B, de Figueiredo AC, Lima AS, Gomes FR, Titon SCM. Baseline and stress-induced changes in plasma bacterial killing ability against gram-negative bacteria are partially mediated by the complement system in Rhinella diptycha toads. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2024; 297:111701. [PMID: 39029618 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2024.111701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 06/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/21/2024]
Abstract
The plasma bacterial killing ability (BKA) is modulated by the stress response in vertebrates, including amphibians. The complement system is an effector mechanism comprised of a set of proteins present in the plasma that once activated can promote bacterial lysis. Herein, we investigated whether changes in plasma BKA as a result of the acute stress response and an immune challenge are mediated by the complement system in Rhinella diptycha toads. Additionally, we investigated whether the observed changes in plasma BKA are associated with changes in plasma corticosterone levels (CORT). We subjected adult male toads to a restraint or an immune challenge (with three concentrations of Aeromonas hydrophila heat inactivated), and then evaluated the plasma BKA against A. hydrophila, in vitro. We determined the complement system activity on plasma BKA, by treating the plasma (baseline, 1 h and 24 h post-restraint, and after the immune challenge) with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, heat, or protease. Our results showed increased CORT 1 h and 24 h after restraint and decreased plasma BKA 24 h post-restraint. The inhibitors of the complement system decreased the plasma BKA compared with untreated plasma at all times (baseline, 1 h, and 24 h after restraint), demonstrating that the plasma BKA activity is partially mediated by the complement system. The immune challenge increased CORT, with the highest values being observed in the highest bacterial concentration, compared with control. The plasma BKA was not affected by the immune challenge but was demonstrated to be partially mediated by the complement system. Our results demonstrated that restraint and the immune challenge activated the hypothalamus-pituitary-interrenal axis, by increasing plasma CORT levels in R. diptycha. Also, our results demonstrated the complement system is participative in the plasma BKA for baseline and post-stress situations in these toads.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Braz Titon Junior
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Bioscience, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Alan Siqueira Lima
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Bioscience, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fernando Ribeiro Gomes
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Bioscience, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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2
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Blanvillain G, Lorch JM, Joudrier N, Bury S, Cuenot T, Franzen M, Martínez-Freiría F, Guiller G, Halpern B, Kolanek A, Kurek K, Lourdais O, Michon A, Musilová R, Schweiger S, Szulc B, Ursenbacher S, Zinenko O, Hoyt JR. Contribution of host species and pathogen clade to snake fungal disease hotspots in Europe. Commun Biol 2024; 7:440. [PMID: 38600171 PMCID: PMC11006896 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06092-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Infectious diseases are influenced by interactions between host and pathogen, and the number of infected hosts is rarely homogenous across the landscape. Areas with elevated pathogen prevalence can maintain a high force of infection and may indicate areas with disease impacts on host populations. However, isolating the ecological processes that result in increases in infection prevalence and intensity remains a challenge. Here we elucidate the contribution of pathogen clade and host species in disease hotspots caused by Ophidiomyces ophidiicola, the pathogen responsible for snake fungal disease, in 21 species of snakes infected with multiple pathogen strains across 10 countries in Europe. We found isolated areas of disease hotspots in a landscape where infections were otherwise low. O. ophidiicola clade had important effects on transmission, and areas with multiple pathogen clades had higher host infection prevalence. Snake species further influenced infection, with most positive detections coming from species within the Natrix genus. Our results suggest that both host and pathogen identity are essential components contributing to increased pathogen prevalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaëlle Blanvillain
- Biological Sciences Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | - Jeffrey M Lorch
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Nicolas Joudrier
- Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- Institute of Animal Pathology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Info fauna-Karch, Centre Suisse de Cartographie de la Faune (CSCF) and Centre de coordination pour la protection des reptiles et des amphibiens de Suisse (karch), Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Stanislaw Bury
- Department of Comparative Anatomy, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland
- NATRIX Herpetological Association, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Thibault Cuenot
- LPO Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, Site de Franche-Comté, Maison de l'environnement de BFC, Besançon, France
| | - Michael Franzen
- Bavarian State Collection of Zoology (ZSM-SNSB), Munich, Germany
| | - Fernando Martínez-Freiría
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Campus de Vairão, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Campus de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal
| | | | - Bálint Halpern
- MME BirdLife Hungary, Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
- HUN-REN-ELTE-MTM, Integrative Ecology Research Group, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Aleksandra Kolanek
- NATRIX Herpetological Association, Wroclaw, Poland
- Department of Geoinformatics and Cartography, Institute of Geography and Regional Development, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Environmental Management, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Kurek
- Department of Wildlife Conservation, Institute of Nature Conservation Polish Academy of Science, Cracow, Poland
| | - Olivier Lourdais
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, ULR CNRS UMR 7372, Villiers en Bois, France
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Alix Michon
- LPO Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, Site de Franche-Comté, Maison de l'environnement de BFC, Besançon, France
| | | | - Silke Schweiger
- First Zoological Department, Herpetological Collection, Natural History Museum, Vienna, Austria
| | - Barbara Szulc
- NATRIX Herpetological Association, Wroclaw, Poland
- Department of Genetics, Kazimierz Wielki University, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Sylvain Ursenbacher
- Info fauna-Karch, Centre Suisse de Cartographie de la Faune (CSCF) and Centre de coordination pour la protection des reptiles et des amphibiens de Suisse (karch), Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Section of Conservation Biology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Balaton Limnological Research Institute, Tihany, Hungary
| | | | - Joseph R Hoyt
- Biological Sciences Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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3
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Field EK, Terry J, Hartzheim AM, Krajcir K, Mullin SJ, Neuman-Lee LA. Investigating relationships among stress, reproduction, and immunity in three species of watersnake. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2023; 343:114350. [PMID: 37524232 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2023.114350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Energy is a finite resource required for all physiological processes and must be allocated efficiently among essential activities to ensure fitness and survival. During the active season, adult organisms are expected to prioritize investment in reproduction over other energetically expensive processes, such as responding to immunological challenges. Furthermore, when encountering a stressor, the balance between reproduction and immunity might be disrupted in order to fuel the stress response. Because of the distinct differences in life histories across species, watersnakes provide a unique group of study in which to examine these tradeoffs. Over a two-year period, we captured three watersnake species throughout Northeast Arkansas. Animals were subjected to restraint stress and blood samples were collected throughout the acute stress response. Blood samples were used to assess innate immunity and steroid hormone concentrations. We found the peak in corticosterone concentration is season-specific, potentially because energetic reserves fluctuate with reproductive activities. We also found body condition was positively related to acute stress and negatively related to immunity. Watersnakes evidently prioritize reproduction over immunity, especially during the energetically intensive process of vitellogenesis. Energetic tradeoffs between reproduction, immunity, and the stress response are complex, and this study contributes to our understanding of energetic shifts in free-living organisms in the context of stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily K Field
- Department of Biological Sciences, Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, AR, United States; Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks, Mississippi Museum of Natural Science, Jackson MS, United States.
| | - Jennifer Terry
- Department of Biological Sciences, Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, AR, United States
| | - Alyssa M Hartzheim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, AR, United States; North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Kevin Krajcir
- Department of Biological Sciences, Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, AR, United States; Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, Little Rock, AR, United States
| | - Stephen J Mullin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, AR, United States.
| | - Lorin A Neuman-Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, AR, United States.
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Kendall MW, Wright AD, Adamovicz LA, Durante K, Andersson KE, Frederickson K, Vivirito K, Ospina EA, Delaney MA, Allender MC. Environmental temperature influences ophidiomycosis progression and survival in experimentally challenged prairie rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis). PLoS One 2023; 18:e0289641. [PMID: 37535551 PMCID: PMC10399908 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Ophidiomycosis is a prevalent and intermittently pervasive disease of snakes globally caused by the opportunistic fungal pathogen, Ophidiomyces ophidiicola. Host response has yet to be fully explored, including the role of temperature in disease progression and hematologic changes. This study enrolled twelve adult prairie rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis) in an experimental challenge with O. ophidiicola at two temperatures, 26°C (n = 6) and 20°C (n = 6). Each temperature cohort included four inoculated and two control snakes. Assessments involving physical exams, lesion swabbing, and hematology were performed weekly. Differences were observed between inoculated and control snakes in survival, behavior, clinical signs, ultraviolet (UV) fluorescence, hematologic response, and histologic lesions. All inoculated snakes held at 20°C were euthanized prior to study end date due to severity of clinical signs while only one inoculated animal in the 26°C trial met this outcome. In both groups, qPCR positive detection preceded clinical signs with regards to days post inoculation (dpi). However, the earliest appearance of gross lesions occurred later in the 20°C snakes (20 dpi) than the 26°C snakes (13 dpi). Relative leukocytosis was observed in all inoculated snakes and driven by heterophilia in the 20°C snakes, and azurophilia in the 26°C group. Histologically, 20°C snakes had more severe lesions, a lack of appropriate inflammatory response, and unencumbered fungal proliferation and invasion. In contrast, 26°C snakes had marked granulomatous inflammation with encapsulation of fungi and less invasion and dissemination. The results of this study identified that O. ophidiicola-infected rattlesnakes exposed to lower temperatures have decreased survival and more robust hematologic change, though minimal and ineffective inflammatory response at site of infection. Ophidiomycosis is a complex disease with host, pathogen, and environmental factors influencing disease presentation, progression, and ultimately, survival. This study highlighted the importance of temperature as an element impacting the host response to O. ophidiicola.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Waligora Kendall
- Wildlife Epidemiology Lab, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Allison D Wright
- Wildlife Epidemiology Lab, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Laura A Adamovicz
- Wildlife Epidemiology Lab, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- The Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Kennymac Durante
- Wildlife Epidemiology Lab, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Kirsten E Andersson
- Wildlife Epidemiology Lab, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Kelcie Frederickson
- Wildlife Epidemiology Lab, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Katie Vivirito
- Wildlife Epidemiology Lab, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Emilie A Ospina
- Wildlife Epidemiology Lab, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- The Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Martha A Delaney
- Zoological Pathology Program, University of Illinois, Brookfield, IL, United States of America
| | - Matthew C Allender
- Wildlife Epidemiology Lab, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- The Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- The Brookfield Zoo, Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield, Illinois, United States of America
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Lind CM, Meyers RA, Moore IT, Agugliaro J, McPherson S, Farrell TM. Ophidiomycosis is associated with alterations in the acute glycemic and glucocorticoid stress response in a free-living snake species. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2023; 339:114295. [PMID: 37121405 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2023.114295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Emerging fungal pathogens are a direct threat to vertebrate biodiversity. Elucidating the mechanisms by which mycoses impact host fitness is an important step towards effective prediction and management of disease outcomes in populations. The vertebrate acute stress response is an adaptive mechanism that allows individuals to meet challenges to homeostasis and survival in dynamic environments. Disease may cause stress, and coping with fungal infections may require shifts in resource allocation that alter the ability of hosts to mount an acute response to other external stressors. We examined the glucocorticoid and glycemic response to acute capture stress in a population of free-living pygmy rattlesnakes, Sistrurus miliarius, afflicted with an emerging mycosis (ophidiomycosis) across seasons. In all combinations of disease status and season, acute capture stress resulted in a significant glucocorticoid and glycemic response. While disease was not associated with elevated baseline or stress-induced corticosterone (CORT), disease was associated with an increased glucocorticoid stress response (post-stress minus baseline) across seasons. Both baseline and stress-induced glucose were lower in snakes with ophidiomycosis compared to uninfected snakes. The relationship between glucose and pre- and post-stress CORT depended on infection status, and positive correlations were only observed in uninfected snakes. The variables which explained CORT and glucose levels were different. The pattern of CORT was highly seasonal (winter high - summer low) and negatively related to body condition. Glucose, on the other hand, did not vary seasonally or with body condition and was strongly related to sex (male high - female low). Our results highlight the fact that circulating CORT and glucose are sensitive to different intrinsic and extrinsic predictor variables and support the hypothesis that disease alters the acute physiological stress response. Whether the effects of ophidiomycosis on the acute stress response result in sublethal effects on fitness should be investigated in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig M Lind
- Stockton University, 101 Vera King Farris Dr, Galloway, NJ 08205, United States.
| | - Riley A Meyers
- Virginia Tech, Dept. Biological Sciences, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States
| | - Ignacio T Moore
- Virginia Tech, Dept. Biological Sciences, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States
| | - Joseph Agugliaro
- Fairleigh Dickinson University, 285 Madison Avenue, Madison, NJ 07940, United States
| | - Samantha McPherson
- Stetson University, 421 N Woodland Blvd, DeLand, FL 32723, United States
| | - Terence M Farrell
- Stetson University, 421 N Woodland Blvd, DeLand, FL 32723, United States
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Dervas E, Michalopoulou E, Liesegang A, Novacco M, Schwarzenberger F, Hetzel U, Kipar A. Haematology, biochemistry and morphological features of peripheral blood cells in captive Boa constrictor. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 11:coad001. [PMID: 36726862 PMCID: PMC9885740 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coad001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The common boa (Boa constrictor) belongs to the family Boidae and represents one of the most popular traded and kept snake species in captivity. The early diagnosis, prevention and prophylaxis of diseases in this species, and in reptiles in general, still pose major challenges, also due to the lack of reliable reference values. This prompted us to conduct a study on clinically healthy captive B. constrictor to assess their basic health parameters in the blood (haematological and biochemical values, stress markers). Several parameters differed significantly between younger (<3 years) and older (≥3 years) boas; in the latter, the percentages of eosinophils, the haemoglobin and haematocrit levels, as well as the albumin and total protein levels, were higher. In male snakes, cholesterol levels were significantly higher than in females. Light and electron microscopy as well as immunohistochemistry served to identify and determine the morphological features of peripheral blood cells, that is, heterophils, basophils, eosinophils, azurophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, thrombocytes and erythrocytes. Leukocyte subpopulations, that is, T and B cells and monocytes, were also identified based on specific marker expression. The study provides data on haematological, biochemical and stress hormone levels, suitable as reference values, and on the blood cell morphology of B. constrictor which can serve as a guideline for further research on this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Dervas
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 268, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - E Michalopoulou
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 268, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - A Liesegang
- Institute for Animal Nutrition and Dietetics, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 270, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - M Novacco
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - F Schwarzenberger
- Unit of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - U Hetzel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 268, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - A Kipar
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 268, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
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Lind CM, Agugliaro J, Lorch JM, Farrell TM. Ophidiomycosis is related to seasonal patterns of reproduction, ecdysis, and thermoregulatory behavior in a free‐living snake species. J Zool (1987) 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.13024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - J. M. Lorch
- U.S. Geological Survey ‐ National Wildlife Health Center Madison WI USA
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Ophidiomyces ophidiicola detection and infection: a global review on a potential threat to the world’s snake populations. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-022-01612-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
AbstractOphidiomyces ophidiicola (Oo) is one of the most relevant fungal pathogens for snakes. It is the etiological agent of ophidiomycosis, an emerging disease causing dysecdysis, skin abnormalities, crusting cutaneous lesions, and ulcerations. Despite this major tegumentary “tropism”, Oo infection can be systemic and it is capable of inducing visceral lesions. Moreover, ophidiomycosis may lead to abnormalities of reproductive physiology, hunting behavior, and thermoregulation, thus increasing the risks of sublethal effects and predation on affected snakes. Oo seems horizontally transmitted and can induce postnatal mortality. This article reviews published data on Oo detection and infection in all snake species in countries around the world and categorizes these data using new classification parameters. The presence of this fungus has been recorded in 11 states (considering the USA as a whole); however, in four states, the mycosis has only been reported in snakes held in captivity. Detection and/or infection of Oo has been ascertained in 62 snake species, divided into nine families. The taxa have been categorized with diagnostic criteria in order to report, for each species, the highest rank of categorization resulting from all cases. Therefore, 20 species have been included within the class “Ophidiomycosis and Oo shedder”, 11 within “Ophidiomycosis”, 16 in “Apparent ophidiomycosis”, and 15 within “Ophidiomyces ophidiicola present”. We also discuss the significance and limits of case classifications and Oo’s impact on wild populations, and we suggest methods for preliminary surveillance. Standardized methods, interdisciplinary studies, and cooperation between various research institutions may facilitate further Oo screening studies, elucidate the unclear aspects of the disease, and protect ophidiofauna from this emerging threat at the global level.
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SEASONAL AND INTERSPECIFIC VARIATION IN THE PREVALENCE OF OPHIDIOMYCES OPHIDIICOLA AND OPHIDIOMYCOSIS IN A COMMUNITY OF FREE-RANGING SNAKES. J Wildl Dis 2022; 58:791-802. [PMID: 36240744 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-21-00134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Ophidiomycosis in snakes is caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophidiicola. Clinical signs associated with the disease range from minor skin lesions to severe swelling of the face. In some cases, the fungus invades the snake's underlying muscle and bone and internal organs; disease severity appears to peak during brumation. We quantified the prevalence of O. ophidiicola and ophidiomycosis in free-ranging snakes to explore seasonal variation in detection of the pathogen and disease. We collected skin swabs (n=464 samples) from seven species of free-ranging snakes (n=336) from Rondeau Provincial Park (Ontario, Canada) and tested the swabs for O. ophidiicola using quantitative PCR. We also assessed individuals for lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis and monitored changes in gross lesions over time in recaptured individuals. Eastern foxsnakes (Pantherophis vulpinus) had the highest prevalence of O. ophidiicola (24/84) and of lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis (34/84). On other species (Nerodia sipedon, Storeria dekayi, Thamnophis sirtalis, and Thamnophis sauritus), we detected the pathogen on only 4/229 snakes and observed gross lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis on 24/229 snakes. Body length of eastern foxsnakes was associated with detection of O. ophidiicola, suggesting that eastern foxsnakes' large size increases the risk of pathogen exposure relative to the other, smaller, species at our study site. Ophidiomyces ophidiicola and lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis were detected most frequently in eastern foxsnakes soon after emergence from brumation and less frequently later in the active season (O. ophidiicola: April=29.8%, October=3.9%; lesions: April=36.1%, October=5.5%). This decrease corresponded with resolution of lesions in 6/13 resampled eastern foxsnakes. Considering the seasonal cycle of O. ophidiicola and ophidiomycosis when planning disease surveillance research may improve detection probabilities for ophidiomycosis in Nearctic snakes.
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Seeley KE, Proudfoot KL, Edes AN. The application of allostasis and allostatic load in animal species: A scoping review. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0273838. [PMID: 36040981 PMCID: PMC9426905 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0273838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Principles of allostasis and allostatic load have been widely applied in human research to assess the impacts of chronic stress on physiological dysregulation. Over the last few decades, researchers have also applied these concepts to non-human animals. However, there is a lack of uniformity in how the concept of allostasis is described and assessed in animals. The objectives of this review were to: 1) describe the extent to which the concepts of allostasis and allostatic load are applied theoretically to animals, with a focus on which taxa and species are represented; 2) identify when direct assessments of allostasis or allostatic load are made, which species and contexts are represented, what biomarkers are used, and if an allostatic load index was constructed; and 3) detect gaps in the literature and identify areas for future research. A search was conducted using CABI, PubMed, Agricola, and BIOSIS databases, in addition to a complementary hand-search of 14 peer-reviewed journals. Search results were screened, and articles that included non-human animals, as well as the terms “allostasis” or “allostatic” in the full text, were included. A total of 572 articles met the inclusion criteria (108 reviews and 464 peer-reviewed original research). Species were represented across all taxa. A subset of 63 publications made direct assessments of allostatic load. Glucocorticoids were the most commonly used biomarker, and were the only biomarker measured in 25 publications. Only six of 63 publications (9.5%) constructed an allostatic load index, which is the preferred methodology in human research. Although concepts of allostasis and allostatic load are being applied broadly across animal species, most publications use single biomarkers that are more likely indicative of short-term rather than chronic stress. Researchers are encouraged to adopt methodologies used in human research, including the construction of species-specific allostatic load indexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn E. Seeley
- Department of Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Kathryn L. Proudfoot
- Health Management, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada
| | - Ashley N. Edes
- Department of Reproductive and Behavioral Sciences, Saint Louis Zoo, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
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McCallie KL, Klukowski M. Corticosterone in three species of free-ranging watersnakes: Testing for reproductive suppression and an association with body condition. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2022; 269:111214. [PMID: 35427765 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2022.111214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2022] [Revised: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The potentially suppressive effects of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis revolve around the central role that glucocorticoids play in mobilizing energy. As an individual's energy balance becomes negative, the HPA axis helps mobilize energy and shifts energy expenditure away from reproduction toward maintenance and survival. While there is evidence in support of these relationships, substantial species variability exists. Studies in a greater diversity of species promise to enhance our understanding of the interactions between these axes. In this field study we tested for relationships among body condition, corticosterone, and sex steroid concentrations in three species of closely related watersnakes: the common watersnake (Nerodia sipedon), the diamondback watersnake (Nerodia rhombifer) and the queen snake (Regina septemvittata). Snakes were sampled before and after a 30 min acute confinement stressor and body condition was estimated using the scaled mass index. All three species exhibited robust elevations of corticosterone in response to acute stress, but only plasma progesterone was elevated by the acute stressor in queen snakes. There was no evidence for a suppression of sex steroid concentrations in any of the species. Body condition was negatively associated with baseline corticosterone in queen snakes and with post-stressor corticosterone in both queen and common watersnakes. Overall we found fairly strong support for the proposed link between corticosterone and energetics in two of the three watersnake species, but no support for the hypothesis that acute stressors are associated with reproductive suppression, at least as measured by steroid concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Louise McCallie
- Department of Biology, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN 37132, USA; Natural Resources Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Matthew Klukowski
- Department of Biology, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN 37132, USA.
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12
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Racine H, Guthrie KS, Hill T, Loughman Z. Impact of Indigestible Materials on the Efficiency of Fecal Corticosterone Immunoassay Testing in Pituophis Species. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12111410. [PMID: 35681872 PMCID: PMC9179318 DOI: 10.3390/ani12111410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Measuring fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM) has recently become a sought-after method for assessing stress in animals. While there are many benefits to this methodology, there are also recognized limitations, including the apprehensive interpretation of results. While many factors can influence FGM levels, we aimed to standardize and improve these methods in snakes. Fecal samples were collected from Pituophis species and FGMs were extracted by two different sample collection methods: (1) fecal sample containing undigested materials and (2) fecal samples with undigested materials removed. These extracts were then used to quantify FGM concentrations using a corticosterone EIA kit. The results indicated that the samples with the undigestible materials removed had a 95% increase in overall yield (p < 0.01). Since the collected fecal samples contain 75% undigestible materials by weight, these results support our hypothesis that removing these materials will improve extraction methods for a more reliable measurement of corticosterone. This is the first step towards standardizing the methods for assessing stress by measuring fecal glucocorticoid metabolites in snakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly Racine
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, West Liberty University, West Liberty, WV 26074, USA; (H.R.); (T.H.)
| | - Kinsey Skalican Guthrie
- Department of Organismal Biology, Ecology, and Zoo Science, West Liberty University, West Liberty, WV 26074, USA;
| | - Tyler Hill
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, West Liberty University, West Liberty, WV 26074, USA; (H.R.); (T.H.)
| | - Zachary Loughman
- Department of Organismal Biology, Ecology, and Zoo Science, West Liberty University, West Liberty, WV 26074, USA;
- Correspondence:
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13
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Names GR, Schultz EM, Krause JS, Hahn TP, Wingfield JC, Heal M, Cornelius JM, Klasing KC, Hunt KE. Stress in paradise: effects of elevated corticosterone on immunity and avian malaria resilience in a Hawaiian passerine. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:272529. [PMID: 34553762 PMCID: PMC8546672 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Vertebrates confronted with challenging environments often experience an increase in circulating glucocorticoids, which result in morphological, physiological and behavioral changes that promote survival. However, chronically elevated glucocorticoids can suppress immunity, which may increase susceptibility to disease. Since the introduction of avian malaria to Hawaii a century ago, low-elevation populations of Hawaii Amakihi (Chlorodrepanis virens) have undergone strong selection by avian malaria and evolved increased resilience (the ability to recover from infection), while populations at high elevation with few vectors have not undergone selection and remain susceptible. We investigated how experimentally elevated corticosterone affects the ability of high- and low-elevation male Amakihi to cope with avian malaria by measuring innate immunity, hematocrit and malaria parasitemia. Corticosterone implants resulted in a decrease in hematocrit in high- and low-elevation birds but no changes to circulating natural antibodies or leukocytes. Overall, leukocyte count was higher in low- than in high-elevation birds. Malaria infections were detected in a subset of low-elevation birds. Infected individuals with corticosterone implants experienced a significant increase in circulating malaria parasites while untreated infected birds did not. Our results suggest that Amakihi innate immunity measured by natural antibodies and leukocytes is not sensitive to changes in corticosterone, and that high circulating corticosterone may reduce the ability of Amakihi to cope with infection via its effects on hematocrit and malaria parasite load. Understanding how glucocorticoids influence a host's ability to cope with introduced diseases provides new insight into the conservation of animals threatened by novel pathogens. Summary: Amakihi innate immunity, as measured by natural antibodies and leukocytes, is not sensitive to changes in corticosterone, but high circulating corticosterone may reduce the ability of Amakihi to cope with avian malaria infection via its effects on hematocrit and malaria parasite load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle R Names
- Animal Behavior Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.,Department of Neurobiology, Physiology and Behavior, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Elizabeth M Schultz
- Department of Biology, Wittenberg University, 200 W Ward Street, Springfield, OH 45504, USA
| | - Jesse S Krause
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada Reno, 1664 North Virginia Street, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - Thomas P Hahn
- Department of Neurobiology, Physiology and Behavior, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - John C Wingfield
- Department of Neurobiology, Physiology and Behavior, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Molly Heal
- Department of Neurobiology, Physiology and Behavior, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Jamie M Cornelius
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, 2701 SW Campus Way, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Kirk C Klasing
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Kathleen E Hunt
- Smithsonian-Mason School of Conservation & Department of Biology, George Mason University, 1500 Remount Rd, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
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14
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McKenzie JM, Price SJ, Connette GM, Bonner SJ, Lorch JM. Effects of snake fungal disease on short-term survival, behavior, and movement in free-ranging snakes. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2021; 31:e02251. [PMID: 33142002 DOI: 10.1002/eap.2251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Pathogenic fungi are increasingly associated with epidemics in wildlife populations. Snake fungal disease (SFD, also referred to as Ophidiomycosis) is an emerging threat to snakes, taxa that are elusive and difficult to sample. Thus, assessments of the effects of SFD on populations have rarely occurred. We used a field technique to enhance detection, Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) telemetry, and a multi-state capture-mark-recapture model to assess SFD effects on short-term (within-season) survival, movement, and surface activity of two wild snake species, Regina septemvittata (Queensnake) and Nerodia sipedon (Common Watersnake). We were unable to detect an effect of disease state on short-term survival for either species. However, we estimated Bayesian posterior probabilities of >0.99 that R. septemvittata with SFD spent more time surface-active and were less likely to permanently emigrate from the study area. We also estimated probabilities of 0.98 and 0.87 that temporary immigration and temporary emigration rates, respectively, were lower in diseased R. septemvittata. We found evidence of elevated surface activity and lower temporary immigration rates in diseased N. sipedon, with estimated probabilities of 0.89, and found considerably less support for differences in permanent or temporary emigration rates. This study is the first to yield estimates for key demographic and behavioral parameters (survival, emigration, surface activity) of snakes in wild populations afflicted with SFD. Given the increase in surface activity of diseased snakes, future surveys of snake populations could benefit from exploring longer-term demographic consequences of SFD and recognize that disease prevalence in surface-active animals may exceed that of the population as a whole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M McKenzie
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40546, USA
| | - Steven J Price
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40546, USA
| | - Grant M Connette
- Working Land and Seascapes, Conservation Commons, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., 20013, USA
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, 1500 Remount Road, Front Royal, Virginia, 20008, USA
| | - Simon J Bonner
- Department of Statistical and Actuarial Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Jeffrey M Lorch
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, 53711, USA
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15
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McKenzie CM, Oesterle PT, Stevens B, Shirose L, Mastromonaco GF, Lillie BN, Davy CM, Jardine CM, Nemeth NM. Ophidiomycosis in Red Cornsnakes ( Pantherophis guttatus): Potential Roles of Brumation and Temperature on Pathogenesis and Transmission. Vet Pathol 2020; 57:825-837. [PMID: 32862796 DOI: 10.1177/0300985820953423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Ophidiomycosis (snake fungal disease) is caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola. As ophidiomycosis is difficult to study in free-ranging snakes, a reliable experimental model is needed to investigate transmission, pathogenesis, morbidity, and mortality, and the effects of brumation and temperature on disease development. Our objective was to develop such a model via subcutaneous injection of O. ophiodiicola conidia in red cornsnakes (Pantherophis guttatus). The model was used to evaluate transmission and the effects of brumation and temperature in co-housed inoculated and noninoculated snakes. All 23 inoculated snakes developed lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis, including heterophilic and granulomatous dermatitis, cellulitis, and myositis, and embolic fungal granulomas throughout the liver and the coelomic connective tissue in 21/23 (91%). In the inoculated snakes, 21% of skin swabs, 37% of exuvia, and all liver samples tested positive by qPCR (quantitative polymerase chain reaction) for O. ophiodiicola. A post brumation skin swab from 1/12 noninoculated snakes that brumated in contact with inoculated snakes tested positive by qPCR, suggesting possible contact transmission. That snake had microscopic skin lesions consistent with ophidiomycosis, but no visible fungal elements. Of the 23 inoculated snakes, 20 (87%) died over the 70-day experiment, with ophidiomycosis considered the primary cause of death; 12 (52%) of the inoculated snakes died during brumation. Overall, this experimental model of ophidiomycosis reproduced skin lesions analogous to those of many natural cases, and internal lesions similar to the most severe natural cases. The study provides tentative experimental evidence for horizontal transmission in brumation, and offers a tool for future studies of this widespread snake disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina M McKenzie
- 3653University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative-Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Paul T Oesterle
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative-Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Brian Stevens
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative-Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Leonard Shirose
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative-Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | | - Christina M Davy
- 6515Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.,Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Claire M Jardine
- 3653University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.,Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative-Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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16
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Lind CM, Moore IT, Vernasco BJ, Latney LV, DiGeronimo PM, Farrell TM. The relationship between steroid hormones and seasonal reproductive events in free-living female Pygmy Rattlesnakes, Sistrurus miliarius. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2020; 290:113416. [PMID: 32006531 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2020.113416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Craig M Lind
- Department of Natural Science and Mathematics, Stockton University, Galloway, NJ, United States.
| | - Ignacio T Moore
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Ben J Vernasco
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | | | | | - Terence M Farrell
- Department of Biology, Stetson University, DeLand, FL, United States
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17
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Agugliaro J, Lind CM, Lorch JM, Farrell TM. An emerging fungal pathogen is associated with increased resting metabolic rate and total evaporative water loss rate in a winter‐active snake. Funct Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Agugliaro
- Department of Biological & Allied Health Sciences Fairleigh Dickinson University Madison NJ USA
| | - Craig M. Lind
- Department of Natural Sciences and Mathematics Stockton University Galloway NJ USA
| | - Jeffrey M. Lorch
- U.S. Geological SurveyNational Wildlife Health Center Madison WI USA
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18
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Interactive Effects of Food Supplementation and Snake Fungal Disease on Pregnant Pygmy Rattlesnakes and Their Offspring. J HERPETOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1670/18-147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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19
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Lind CM, Lorch JM, Moore IT, Vernasco BJ, Farrell TM. Seasonal sex steroids indicate reproductive costs associated with snake fungal disease. J Zool (1987) 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. M. Lind
- Department of Natural Sciences and Mathematics Stockton University Galloway NJ USA
- Department of Biology Stetson University Deland FL USA
| | - J. M. Lorch
- US Geological Survey National Wildlife Health Center Madison WI USA
| | - I. T. Moore
- Department of Biological Sciences Virginia Tech Blacksburg VA USA
| | - B. J. Vernasco
- Department of Biological Sciences Virginia Tech Blacksburg VA USA
| | - T. M. Farrell
- Department of Biology Stetson University Deland FL USA
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20
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Lind CM, Moore IT, Vernasco BJ, Farrell TM. Seasonal testosterone and corticosterone patterns in relation to body condition and reproduction in a subtropical pitviper, Sistrurus miliarius. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2018; 267:51-58. [PMID: 29807034 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2018.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Seasonal constraints on the timing and intensity of reproductive events shape observed variation in life history strategies across latitudes. Selection acts on the endocrine mechanisms that underlie reproductive investment. It is therefore important to examine the seasonal relationship between hormones and reproduction in geographically and phylogenetically diverse taxa. Snakes have proven to be a valuable model in investigations of seasonal hormone production and behavior in field-active vertebrates, but most research has focused on temperate populations from highly seasonal environments. To reduce this bias, we provide a description of the seasonal relationships among testosterone, corticosterone, body condition, and reproductive behavior in a subtropical population of Pygmy Rattlesnakes, Sistrurus miliarius. In central Florida, Sistrurus miliarius exhibits a prolonged breeding season (September-January) compared to most temperate zone snakes. Despite the extended breeding season, the pattern of testosterone in the population was highly seasonal and very similar to temperate pitvipers with a shorter mating season. Testosterone declined steadily through the mating season, but males sampled while engaging in mating behaviors had higher testosterone compared to solitary males throughout the mating season. Testosterone was negatively related to corticosterone throughout the breeding season and during times of year when the gonads were presumed to be quiescent and no mating behavior was observed. Testosterone was positively related to individual body condition both within and outside of the breeding season. A review of the literature reveals no consistent pattern regarding the relationship between corticosterone and testosterone in snakes, but suggests that the condition-dependence of steroid production may be consistent across snake taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig M Lind
- Department of Biology, Stetson University, Deland, FL 32723, USA; Department of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Stockton University, Galloway, NJ 08201, USA.
| | - Ignacio T Moore
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Ben J Vernasco
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
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21
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Tracking Outcomes of Snake Fungal Disease in Free-ranging Pygmy Rattlesnakes (Sistrurus miliarius). J Wildl Dis 2018; 54:352-356. [DOI: 10.7589/2017-05-109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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22
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Lind CM, Ramis F, Paredes DJG, Moore IT, Vernasco BJ, Farrell TM. Mechanisms underlying maternal care in a viviparous snake, Sistrurus miliarius: Does maternal body condition, corticosterone, or arginine vasotocin mediate post-birth maternal investment? JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART 2018; 327:458-465. [PMID: 29356456 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 10/23/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The level of parental investment in free-living offspring varies greatly within and among vertebrate taxa, and the mechanisms that mediate investment are likely targets of selection in the evolution of reproductive strategies. In mammalian and avian systems, individual investment is adjusted according to parental energetic status, and regulatory mechanisms have been described. Parental care is also a component of the life history of several groups of squamates and archosaurs, but little to nothing is known regarding the mechanisms that underlie individual variation in parental investment in these groups. Therefore, we examined the relationships among maternal body condition, corticosterone, arginine vasotocin (AVT), and maternal care in postparturient pigmy rattlesnakes. Energetic status was manipulated in pregnant females by supplemental feeding, and AVT was manipulated in postparturient mothers by intraperitoneal injection. Circulating corticosterone and body condition were recorded in postparturient mothers. Mother-offspring spatial relationships were analyzed to determine the closeness of mother-offspring associations. No significant relationship between maternal body condition and baseline corticosterone was observed in mothers, and no significant relationship was found between corticosterone and the level of maternal association with offspring. Manipulation of AVT did not stimulate maternal care. There was a strong and repeatable positive relationship between maternal postparturient body condition and the level of maternal association with offspring. The lack of a significant correlation between body condition and corticosterone does not support the hypothesis that a postparturient glucocorticoid response drives the observed condition-dependence of maternal offspring association.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig M Lind
- Department of Biology, Stetson University, Deland, Florida, USA.,Department of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Stockton University, Galloway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Fatima Ramis
- Department of Biology, Stetson University, Deland, Florida, USA
| | | | - Ignacio T Moore
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Ben J Vernasco
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
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