1
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Caves EM, Davis AL, Nowicki S, Johnsen S. Backgrounds and the evolution of visual signals. Trends Ecol Evol 2024; 39:188-198. [PMID: 37802667 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2023.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023]
Abstract
Color signals which mediate behavioral interactions across taxa and contexts are often thought of as color 'patches' - parts of an animal that appear colorful compared to other parts of that animal. Color patches, however, cannot be considered in isolation because how a color is perceived depends on its visual background. This is of special relevance to the function and evolution of signals because backgrounds give rise to a fundamental tradeoff between color signal detectability and discriminability: as its contrast with the background increases, a color patch becomes more detectable, but discriminating variation in that color becomes more difficult. Thus, the signal function of color patches can only be fully understood by considering patch and background together as an integrated whole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor M Caves
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
| | | | - Stephen Nowicki
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Sönke Johnsen
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
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2
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Gao Y, Ge Y, Yan L, Vikhrev NE, Wang Q, Butterworth NJ, Zhang D. Phylogenetic Analyses Support the Monophyly of the Genus Lispe Latreille (Diptera: Muscidae) with Insights into Intrageneric Relationships. INSECTS 2022; 13:1015. [PMID: 36354839 PMCID: PMC9697789 DOI: 10.3390/insects13111015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Lispe Latreille (Diptera: Muscidae) are a widespread group of predatory flies that inhabit semi-aquatic environments. Previous studies on this genus have mainly focused on morphological classification, so molecular data are entirely lacking, and there has been no attempt at a phylogenetic placement of the genus or the resolution of intragenic relationships. To address the phylogenetic placement of Lispe and to fill its gap in the Tree of Life Web Project, 58 Lispe spp. (covering 11 out of 13 acknowledged Lispe species groups) were selected to reconstruct a phylogeny using Maximum likelihood (ML) estimates, Maximum Parsimony (MP) analyses, and Bayesian inference (BI) based on two mitochondrial protein-coding genes (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COXI) and cytochrome b gene (CYTB)) and one nuclear gene (a fragment of the carbamoyl phosphate synthetase region of the CAD gene). The phylogenetic analyses indicated that the monophyletic Lispe is the sister group of the monophyletic Limnophora, together forming the tribe Limnophorini under the subfamily Coenosiinae. Three generic categories are proven obsolete: Chaetolispa Malloch, Lispacoenosia Snyder, and Xenolispa Malloch. Within the genus, the validity of 11 species groups is clarified by both molecular and morphological data. This study provides a sound basis for continuing intergeneric and intrageneric research into this fascinating and widespread genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunyun Gao
- School of Ecology and Nature Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yingqiang Ge
- School of Ecology and Nature Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Liping Yan
- School of Ecology and Nature Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Nikita E. Vikhrev
- Zoological Museum of Moscow University, Bolshaya Nikitskaya 6, Moscow 125009, Russia
| | - Qike Wang
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | | | - Dong Zhang
- School of Ecology and Nature Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
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3
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Endler JA, Raggay DM, Maerowitz-McMahan S, Reznick DN, Fuller RC. Visual Background Choice and Light Environment Affect Male Guppy Visual Contrast. Vision (Basel) 2022; 6:vision6030056. [PMID: 36136749 PMCID: PMC9500966 DOI: 10.3390/vision6030056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Male guppies (Poecilia reticulata) have multiple colored spots and perform courtship displays near the edges of streams in Trinidad in shallow water flowing through rainforest. Depending upon the orientation of the pair, the female sees the male displays against gravel or other stream bed substrates or against the spacelight—the roughly uniform light coming from the water column away from the bank. We observed courting pairs in two adjacent natural streams and noted the directions of each male display. We found that the female sees the male more often against spacelight than against gravel when females either faced the spacelight from the opposite bank or from downstream, or both. Visual modelling using natural substrate reflectances and field light measurements showed higher chromatic contrast of males against spacelight than against substrates independent of the two ambient light environments used during displays, but achromatic contrast depended upon the ambient light habitat. This suggests that courtship involves both chromatic and achromatic contrast. We conclude that the orientation of courting pairs and the ambient light spectrum should be accounted for in studies of mate choice, because the visual background and light affect visibility, and these differ with orientation.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A. Endler
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, VIC 3216, Australia
- Correspondence:
| | - Dara-Marie Raggay
- Department of Life Sciences, University of the West Indies, St Augustine 999183, Trinidad and Tobago
| | | | - David N. Reznick
- Department of Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Rebecca C. Fuller
- School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL 61820, USA
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4
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White TE, Latty T, Umbers KDL. The exploitation of sexual signals by predators: a meta-analysis. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20220444. [PMID: 35642366 PMCID: PMC9156902 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.0444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexual signals are often central to reproduction, and their expression is thought to strike a balance between advertising to mates and avoiding detection by predatory eavesdroppers. Tests of the predicted predation costs have produced mixed results, however. Here we synthesized 187 effects from 78 experimental studies in a meta-analytic test of two questions; namely, whether predators, parasites and parasitoids express preferences for the sexual signals of prey, and whether sexual signals increase realized predation risk in the wild. We found that predators and parasitoids express strong and consistent preferences for signals in forced-choice contexts. We found a similarly strong overall increase in predation on sexual signallers in the wild, though here it was modality specific. Olfactory and acoustic signals increased the incidence of eavesdropping relative to visual signals, which experienced no greater risk than controls on average. Variation in outcome measures was universally high, suggesting that contexts in which sexual signalling may incur no cost, or even reduce the incidence of predation, are common. Our results reveal unexpected complexity in a central viability cost to sexual signalling, while also speaking to applied problems in invasion biology and pest management where signal exploitation holds promise for bio-inspired solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E. White
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2106, Australia
| | - Tanya Latty
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2106, Australia
| | - Kate D. L. Umbers
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Sydney, New South Wales 2751, Australia,Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales 2751, Australia
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5
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Rowe ZW, Austin DJD, Chippington N, Flynn W, Starkey F, Wightman EJ, Scott-Samuel NE, Cuthill IC. Background complexity can mitigate poor camouflage. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20212029. [PMID: 34814749 PMCID: PMC8611345 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.2029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Avoiding detection through camouflage is often key to survival. However, an animal's appearance is not the only factor affecting conspicuousness: background complexity also alters detectability. This has been experimentally demonstrated for both artificially patterned backgrounds in the laboratory and natural backgrounds in the wild, but only for targets that already match the background well. Do habitats of high visual complexity provide concealment to even relatively poorly camouflaged animals? Using artificial prey which differed in their degrees of background matching to tree bark, we were able to determine their survival, under bird predation, with respect to the natural complexity of the background. The latter was quantified using low-level vision metrics of feature congestion (or 'visual clutter') adapted for bird vision. Higher background orientation clutter (edges with varying orientation) reduced the detectability of all but the poorest background-matching camouflaged treatments; higher background luminance clutter (varying achromatic lightness) reduced average mortality for all treatments. Our results suggest that poorer camouflage can be mitigated by more complex backgrounds, with implications for both camouflage evolution and habitat preferences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeke W. Rowe
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Daniel J. D. Austin
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Nicol Chippington
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - William Flynn
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Finn Starkey
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Edward J. Wightman
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | | | - Innes C. Cuthill
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
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6
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White TE, Locke A, Latty T. Heightened condition dependent expression of structural coloration in the faces, but not wings, of male and female flies. Curr Zool 2021; 68:600-607. [PMID: 36324536 PMCID: PMC9616059 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoab087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Structurally colored sexual signals are a conspicuous and widespread class of ornament used in mate choice, though the extent to which they encode information on the quality of their bearers is not fully resolved. Theory predicts that signaling traits under strong sexual selection as honest indicators should evolve to be more developmentally integrated and exaggerated than nonsexual traits, thereby leading to heightened condition dependence. Here, we test this prediction through examination of the sexually dimorphic faces and wings of the cursorial fly Lispe cana. Males and females possess structural UV-white and golden faces, respectively, and males present their faces and wings to females during close-range, ground-based courtship displays, thereby creating the opportunity for mutual inspection. Across a field-collected sample of individuals, we found that the appearance of the faces of both sexes scaled positively with individual condition, though along separate axes. Males in better condition expressed brighter faces as modeled according to conspecific flies, whereas condition scaled with facial saturation in females. We found no such relationships for their wing interference pattern nor abdomens, with the latter included as a nonsexual control. Our results suggest that the structurally colored faces, but not the iridescent wings, of male and female L. cana are reliable guides to individual quality and support the broader potential for structural colors as honest signals. They also highlight the potential for mutual mate choice in this system, while arguing for 1 of several alternate signaling roles for wing interferences patterns among the myriad taxa which bear them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E White
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2106, Australia
| | - Amy Locke
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2106, Australia
| | - Tanya Latty
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2106, Australia
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7
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Butterworth NJ, Wallman JF. Flies getting filthy: The precopulatory mating behaviours of three mud‐dwelling species of Australian
Lispe
(Diptera: Muscidae). Ethology 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - James F. Wallman
- Faculty of Science University of Technology Sydney Ultimo NSW Australia
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8
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Sound vs. light: wing-based communication in Carboniferous insects. Commun Biol 2021; 4:794. [PMID: 34239029 PMCID: PMC8266802 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02281-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Acoustic communication is well-known in insects since the Mesozoic, but earlier evidence of this behavior is rare. Titanoptera, an ‘orthopteroid’ Permian-Triassic order, is one of the few candidates for Paleozoic intersex calling interactions: some specimens had highly specialized broadened zones on the forewings, which are currently considered—despite inconclusive evidence—as ‘resonators’ of a stridulatory apparatus. Here we argue that the stridulatory apparatus hypothesis is unlikely because the Titanoptera lack a stridulatory file on their bodies, legs or wings. Instead, comparing these broadened zones with similar structures in extant locusts, flies, and fossil damselflies, we find evidence that the Titanoptera used their wings to produce flashes of light and/or crepitated sounds. Moreover, we describe the first Carboniferous (~310 Mya) Titanoptera, which exhibits such specialized zones, thus corresponding to the oldest record of wing communication in insects. Whether these communication systems were used to attract sexual partners and/or escape predators remain to be demonstrated. Schubnel, Nel and colleagues present the first Carboniferous representative of Titanoptera, Theiatitan azari. Specially modified wing zones suggest that Titanoptera were capable of wing-based communication using light or sound, as seen in modern species.
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9
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White TE, Umbers KDL. Meta-analytic evidence for quantitative honesty in aposematic signals. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210679. [PMID: 33906408 PMCID: PMC8080005 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The combined use of noxious chemical defences and conspicuous warning colours is a ubiquitous anti-predator strategy. That such signals advertise the presence of defences is inherent to their function, but their predicted potential for quantitative honesty-the positive scaling of signal salience with the strength of protection-is the subject of enduring debate. Here, we systematically synthesized the available evidence to test this prediction using meta-analysis. We found evidence for a positive correlation between warning colour expression and the extent of chemical defences across taxa. Notably, this relationship held at all scales; among individuals, populations and species, though substantial between-study heterogeneity remains unexplained. Consideration of the design of signals revealed that all visual features, from colour to contrast, were equally informative of the extent of prey defence. Our results affirm a central prediction of honesty-based models of signal function and narrow the scope of possible mechanisms shaping the evolution of aposematism. They suggest diverse pathways to the encoding and exchange of information, while highlighting the need for deeper knowledge of the ecology of chemical defences to enrich our understanding of this widespread anti-predator adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E. White
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2106, Australia
| | - Kate D. L. Umbers
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales 2751, Australia
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales 2751, Australia
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10
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Butterworth NJ, White TE, Byrne PG, Wallman JF. Love at first flight: wing interference patterns are species-specific and sexually dimorphic in blowflies (Diptera: Calliphoridae). J Evol Biol 2021; 34:558-570. [PMID: 33483961 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Wing interference patterns (WIPs) are stable structural colours displayed on insect wings which are only visible at specific viewing geometries and against certain backgrounds. These patterns are widespread among flies and wasps, and growing evidence suggests that they may function as species- and sex-specific mating cues in a range of taxa. As such, it is expected that WIPs should differ between species and show clear sexual dimorphisms. However, the true extent to which WIPs vary between species, sexes and individuals is currently unclear, as previous studies have only taken a qualitative approach, without considering how WIPs might be perceived by the insect. Here, we perform the first quantitative analysis of inter- and intra-specific variation in WIPs across seven Australian species of the blowfly genus Chrysomya. Using multispectral digital imaging and a tentative model of blowfly colour vision, we provide quantitative evidence that WIPs are species-specific, highlight that the extent of divergence is greater in males than in females and demonstrate sexual dimorphisms in several species. These data suggest that WIPs have diversified substantially in blowflies as a result of either sexual or ecological selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan J Butterworth
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.,School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Thomas E White
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Phillip G Byrne
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - James F Wallman
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.,School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
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11
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Stuart-Fox D, Ospina-Rozo L, Ng L, Franklin AM. The Paradox of Iridescent Signals. Trends Ecol Evol 2020; 36:187-195. [PMID: 33168152 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2020.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Signals reliably convey information to a receiver. To be reliable, differences between individuals in signal properties must be consistent and easily perceived and evaluated by receivers. Iridescent objects are often striking and vivid, but their appearance can change dramatically with viewing geometry and illumination. The changeable nature of iridescent surfaces creates a paradox: how can they be reliable signals? We contend that iridescent color patches can be reliable signals only if accompanied by specific adaptations to enhance reliability, such as structures and behaviors that limit perceived hue shift or enhance and control directionality. We highlight the challenges of studying iridescence and key considerations for the evaluation of its adaptive significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devi Stuart-Fox
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | - Laura Ospina-Rozo
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Leslie Ng
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Amanda M Franklin
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
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12
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White TE, Latty T. Flies improve the salience of iridescent sexual signals by orienting toward the sun. Behav Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/araa098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Sunlight is the ultimate source of most visual signals. Theory predicts strong selection for its effective use during communication, with functional links between signal designs and display behaviors a likely result. This is particularly true for iridescent structural colors, whose moment-to-moment appearance bears a heightened sensitivity to the position of signalers, receivers, and the sun. Here, we experimentally tested this prediction using Lispe cana, a muscid fly in which males present their structurally colored faces and wings to females during ground-based sexual displays. In field-based assays, we found that males actively bias the orientation of their displays toward the solar azimuth under conditions of full sunlight and do so across the entire day. This bias breaks down, however, when the sun is naturally concealed by heavy cloud or experimentally obscured. Our modeling of the appearance of male signals revealed clear benefits for the salience of male ornaments, with a roughly 4-fold increase in subjective luminance achievable through accurate display orientation. These findings offer fine-scale, causal evidence for the active control of sexual displays to enhance the appearance of iridescent signals. More broadly, they speak to predicted coevolution between dynamic signal designs and presentation behaviors, and support arguments for a richer appreciation of the fluidity of visual communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E White
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Tanya Latty
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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13
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Hodge JR, Santini F, Wainwright PC. Colour dimorphism in labrid fishes as an adaptation to life on coral reefs. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20200167. [PMID: 32183627 PMCID: PMC7126040 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.0167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Conspicuous coloration displayed by animals that express sexual colour dimorphism is generally explained as an adaptation to sexual selection, yet the interactions and relative effects of selective forces influencing colour dimorphism are largely unknown. Qualitatively, colour dimorphism appears more pronounced in marine fishes that live on coral reefs where traits associated with strong sexual selection are purportedly more common. Using phylogenetic comparative analysis, we show that wrasses and parrotfishes exclusive to coral reefs are the most colour dimorphic, but surprisingly, the effect of habitat is not influenced by traits associated with strong sexual selection. Rather, habitat-specific selective forces, including clear water and structural refuge, promote the evolution of pronounced colour dimorphism that manifests colours less likely to be displayed in other habitats. Our results demonstrate that environmental context ultimately determines the evolution of conspicuous coloration in colour-dimorphic labrid fishes, despite other influential selective forces.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Hodge
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - F Santini
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - P C Wainwright
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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