Compton scattering profile for in vivo XRF techniques

Preliminary studies on combining the K and L XRF methods for in vivo bone lead measurement

Lead is a toxic material that invokes irreversible neurological problems. Once ingested, lead accumulates in the bones. To study detailed lead poisoning effects it is essential to have an in vivo bone lead measurement tool with a small minimum detectable concentration (MDC). Both K- and L-based XRF methods for the tibia bone have been suggested and developed in the past and are presently in use. In this work a combined K and L XRF method for the tibia bone is proposed. The proposed system consists of a 109Cd point source and Ge and Si(Li) detectors for optimum detection of the K and L X-rays, respectively. Experimental and Monte Carlo simulated results are given here for a prototype combined K and L XRF system. This system promises to yield a better MDC and the possibility of obtaining information on the near-surface bone lead content as well as the average lead content throughout the bone.

A comparison between EGS4 and MCNP computer modeling of an in vivo X-ray fluorescence system

The Monte Carlo computer codes EGS4 and MCNP were used to develop a theoretical model of a 180 degrees geometry in vivo X-ray fluorescence system for the measurement of platinum concentration in head and neck tumors. The model included specification of the photon source, collimators, phantoms and detector. Theoretical results were compared and evaluated against X-ray fluorescence data obtained experimentally from an existing system developed by the Swansea In Vivo Analysis and Cancer Research Group. The EGS4 results agreed well with the MCNP results. However, agreement between the measured spectral shape obtained using the experimental X-ray fluorescence system and the simulated spectral shape obtained using the two Monte Carlo codes was relatively poor. The main reason for the disagreement between the results arises from the basic assumptions which the two codes used in their calculations. Both codes assume a "free" electron model for Compton interactions. This assumption will underestimate the results and invalidates any predicted and experimental spectra when compared with each other.

Photon backscattering tissue characterization by energy dispersive spectroscopy evaluations

Techniques for in vivo tissue characterization based on scattered photons have usually been confined to evaluating coherent and Compton peaks. However, information can also be obtained from the energy analysis of the Compton scattered distribution. This paper looks at the extension of a technique validated by the authors for characterizing tissues composed of low-atomic-number elements. To this end, an EDXRS (energy dispersive x-ray spectrometry) computer simulation procedure was performed and applied to test the validity of a figure of merit able to characterize binary compounds. This figure of merit is based on the photon fluence values in a restricted energy interval of the measured distribution of incoherently scattered photons. After careful experimental tests with 59.54 keV incident photons at scattering angles down to 60degrees, the simulation procedure was applied to quasi-monochromatic and polychromatic high-radiance sources. The results show that the characterization by the figure of merit, which operates satisfactorily with monochromatic sources, is unsatisfactory in the latter cases, which seem to favour a different parameter for compound characterization.

The Monte Carlo modelling of in vivo X-ray fluorescence measurement of lead in tissue

A Monte Carlo model has been developed, using the EGS4 code, to model the in vivo x-ray fluorescence (XRF) measurement of Pb in non-superficial bone/tissue. Unlike previous work in this field the current model incorporates a correction for Doppler broadening of the Compton scatter peak due to the electron momentum distribution of the medium (tissue/water) in which the photons are Compton scattered by convolving the Compton peak of the Monte Carlo generated spectrum with a modified Compton profile for water. This correction improves the agreement between the measured spectral shape obtained using an experimental in vivo x-ray fluorescence Pb analyser with a 109Cd/180 degrees source/geometry combination, measuring a bone phantom at depth in water and the generated spectral shape obtained from the equivalent Monte Carlo model. The model enables improved estimates to be made of the spectral background beneath the Pb Kalpha1 and Kalpha2 x-ray peaks compared with estimates based on simpler models that assume that Compton interactions are with 'free' electrons and hence permits better optimization of in vivo analyser system design.

Electron density of normal and pathological breast tissues using a Compton scattering technique

Compton (incoherently) scattered photons which are directly proportional to the electron density of the scatterer, have been employed in characterising human breast tissues. Gamma ray photons scattered incoherently from normal and pathological breast tissue samples of nine breast cancer patients were measured using a high purity germanium detector and an americium (Am-241) source. The breast tissue samples were obtained from female patients undergoing mastectomy. The samples were examined in freeze dried form and the results were corrected for the reduction in the water content of each tissue type by use of the Mixture Rule. This study is aimed at providing electron density information in support of the introduction of new tissue substitute materials for mammography phantoms.

Monte Carlo simulation of source-excited in vivo x-ray fluorescence measurements of heavy metals

This paper reports on the Monte Carlo simulation of in vivo x-ray fluorescence (XRF) measurements. Our model is an improvement on previously reported simulations in that it relies on a theoretical basis for modelling Compton momentum broadening as well as detector efficiency. Furthermore, this model is an accurate simulation of experimentally detected spectra when comparisons are made in absolute counts; preceding models have generally only achieved agreement with spectra normalized to unit area. Our code is sufficiently flexible to be applied to the investigation of numerous source-excited in vivo XRF systems. Thus far the simulation has been applied to the modelling of two different systems. The first application was the investigation of various aspects of a new in vivo XRF system, the measurement of uranium in bone with 57Co in a backscatter (approximately 180 degrees) geometry. The Monte Carlo simulation was critical in assessing the potential of applying XRF to the measurement of uranium in bone. Currently the Monte Carlo code is being used to evaluate a potential means of simplifying an established in vivo XRF system, the measurement of lead in bone with 57Co in a 90 degrees geometry. The results from these simulations may demonstrate that calibration procedures can be significantly simplified and subject dose may be reduced. As well as providing an excellent tool for optimizing designs of new systems and improving existing techniques, this model can be used in the investigation of the dosimetry of various XRF systems. Our simulation allows a detailed understanding of the numerous processes involved when heavy metal concentrations are measured in vivo with XRF.

Development of the specific purpose Monte Carlo code CEARXRF for the design and use of in vivo X-ray fluorescence analysis systems for lead in bone

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) systems have been increasingly used for in vivo toxic trace-element analysis in the human body, such as lead in the tibia. Monte Carlo simulation can provide an efficient and flexible method for designing and using in vivo XRF systems. The Monte Carlo code CEARXRF has been developed specifically to simulate the complete pulse height spectrum of energy-dispersive XRF systems. This code is capable of tracking photons in a general geometry and modelling all of the physics of photon interactions in the energy range 1-150 keV for elements Z = 1-94, including primary and higher degree excitations of K and L XRF, the Doppler broadening of Compton-scattered photon energies, and the polarization effects in low-energy photon scatterings. The scattering background for minimum detectable concentration (MDC) analysis may be simulated more accurately by taking into account Doppler broadening in the distribution of the Compton-scattered photon energy due to electron-binding effects. The use of polarized excitation photons has been shown to be important in producing a low scattering background and good measurement sensitivity. The code has two very unique and important features: (1) complete composition and density correlated sampling that is extremely useful for studying measurement sensitivity to small changes in sample composition and density; and (2) Monte Carlo library spectra calculation for the determination of elemental amounts by the Monte Carlo-Library Least-Squares (MCLLS) method. The capability of CEARXRF to aid the design and optimization of in vivo XRF analysis has been verified by modelling hypothesized lead K and L XRF measurement systems.