Positioning of a plane-parallel ionization chamber in clinical electron beams and the impact on perturbation factors

AAPM WGTG51 Report 385: Addendum to the AAPM's TG-51 protocol for clinical reference dosimetry of high-energy electron beams

An Addendum to the AAPM's TG-51 protocol for the determination of absorbed dose to water is presented for electron beams with energies between 4 MeV and 22 MeV (1.70 cm ≤ R 50 ≤ 8.70 cm $1.70\nobreakspace {\rm cm} \le R_{\text{50}} \le 8.70\nobreakspace {\rm cm}$ ). This updated formalism allows simplified calibration procedures, including the use of calibrated cylindrical ionization chambers in all electron beams without the use of a gradient correction. Newk Q $k_{Q}$ data are provided for electron beams based on Monte Carlo simulations. Implementation guidance is provided. Components of the uncertainty budget in determining absorbed dose to water at the reference depth are discussed. Specifications for a reference-class chamber in electron beams include chamber stability, settling, ion recombination behavior, and polarity dependence. Progress in electron beam reference dosimetry is reviewed. Although this report introduces some major changes (e.g., gradient corrections are implicitly included in the electron beam quality conversion factors), they serve to simplify the calibration procedure. Results for absorbed dose per linac monitor unit are expected to be up to approximately 2 % higher using this Addendum compared to using the original TG-51 protocol.

AAPM WGTG51 Report 374: Guidance for TG-51 reference dosimetry

Practical guidelines that are not explicit in the TG-51 protocol and its Addendum for photon beam dosimetry are presented for the implementation of the TG-51 protocol for reference dosimetry of external high-energy photon and electron beams. These guidelines pertain to: (i) measurement of depth-ionization curves required to obtain beam quality specifiers for the selection of beam quality conversion factors, (ii) considerations for the dosimetry system and specifications of a reference-class ionization chamber, (iii) commissioning a dosimetry system and frequency of measurements, (iv) positioning/aligning the water tank and ionization chamber for depth ionization and reference dose measurements, (v) requirements for ancillary equipment needed to measure charge (triaxial cables and electrometers) and to correct for environmental conditions, and (vi) translation from dose at the reference depth to that at the depth required by the treatment planning system. Procedures are identified to achieve the most accurate results (errors up to 8% have been observed) and, where applicable, a commonly used simplified procedure is described and the impact on reference dosimetry measurements is discussed so that the medical physicist can be informed on where to allocate resources.

Determination of beam quality correction factors for the Roos plane-parallel ionisation chamber exposed to very high energy electron (VHEE) beams using Geant4

Detailed characterisation of the Roos secondary standard plane-parallel ionisation chamber has been conducted in a novel 200 MeV Very High Energy Electron (VHEE) beam with reference to the standard 12 MeV electron calibration beam used in our experimental work. Stopping-power-ratios and perturbation factors have been determined for both beams and used to calculated the beam quality correction factor using the Geant4 general purpose MC code. These factors have been calculated for a variety of charged particle transport parameters available in Geant4 which were found to pass the Fano cavity test. Stopping-power-ratios for the 12 MeV electron calibration beam quality were found to agree within uncertainties to that quoted by current dosimetry protocols. Perturbation factors were found to vary by up-to 4% for the calibration beam depending on the parameter configuration, compared with only 0.8% for the VHEE beam. Beam quality correction factors were found to describe an approximately 10% lower dose than would be originally calculated if a beam quality correction were not accounted for. Moreover, results presented here largely resolve unphysical chamber measurements, such as collection efficiencies greater than 100%, and assist in the accurate determination of absorbed dose and ion recombination in secondary standard ionisation chambers.

Dosimetric accuracy of a cross-calibration coefficient for plane-parallel ionization chamber obtained in low-energy electron beams using various cylindrical dosimeters

Introduction: The accuracy of the cross-calibration procedure depends on ionization chamber type, both used as reference one and under consideration. Also, the beam energy and phantom medium could influence the precision of cross calibration coefficient, resulting in a systematic error in dose estimation and thus could influence the linac beam output checking. This will result in a systematic mismatch between dose calculated in treatment planning system and delivered to the patient.

Material and methods: The usage of FC65-G, CC13 and CC01 thimble reference chambers as well as 6, 9, and 15 MeV electron beams has been analyzed. A plane-parallel PPC05 chamber was calibrated since scarce literature data are available for this dosimeter type. The influence of measurement medium and an effective point of measurement (EPOM) on obtained results are also presented.

Results: Dose reconstruction precision of ~0.1% for PPC05 chamber could be obtained when cross-calibration is based on a thimble CC13 chamber. Nd,w,Qcross obtained in beam ≥ 9MeV gives 0.1 – 0.5% precision of dose reconstruction.

Without beam quality correction, 15 MeV Nd,w,Qcross is 10% lower than Co-60 Nd,w,0. Various EPOM shifts resulted in up to 0.6% discrepancies in Nd,w,Qcross values.

Conclusions: Ionization chamber with small active volume and tissue-equivalent materials supplies more accurate cross-calibration coefficients in the range of 6 – 15 MeV electron beams. In the case of 6 and 9 MeV beams, the exact position of an effective point of measurement is of minor importance. In-water cross-calibration coefficient can be used in a solid medium without loss of dose accuracy.

Cema-based formalism for the determination of absorbed dose for high-energy photon beams

PURPOSE

Determination of absorbed dose is well established in many dosimetry protocols and considered to be highly reliable using ionization chambers under reference conditions. If dosimetry is performed under other conditions or using other detectors, however, open questions still remain. Such questions frequently refer to appropriate correction factors. A converted energy per mass (cema)-based approach to formulate such correction factors offers a good understanding of the specific response of a detector for dosimetry under various measuring conditions and thus an estimate of pros and cons of its application.

METHODS

Determination of absorbed dose requires the knowledge of the beam quality correction factor k_Q,Qo , where Q denotes the quality of a user beam and Qo is the quality of the radiation used for calibration. In modern Monte Carlo (MC)-based methods, k_Q,Qo is directly derived from the MC-calculated dose conversion factor, which is the ratio between the absorbed dose at a point of interest in water and the mean absorbed dose in the sensitive volume of an ion chamber. In this work, absorbed dose is approximated by the fundamental quantity cema. This approximation allows the dose conversion factor to be substituted by the cema conversion factor. Subsequently, this factor is decomposed into a product of cema ratios. They are identified as the stopping power ratio water to the material in the sensitive detector volume, and as the correction factor for the fluence perturbation of the secondary charged particles in the detector cavity caused by the presence of the detector. This correction factor is further decomposed with respect to the perturbation caused by the detector cavity and that caused by external detector properties. The cema-based formalism was subsequently tested by MC calculations of the spectral fluence of the secondary charged particles (electrons and positrons) under various conditions.

RESULTS

MC calculations demonstrate that considerable fluence perturbation may occur particularly under non-reference conditions. Cema-based correction factors to be applied in a 6-MV beam were obtained for a number of ionization chambers and for three solid-state detectors. Feasibility was shown at field sizes of 4 × 4 and 0.5 cm × 0.5 cm. Values of the cema ratios resulting from the decomposition of the dose conversion factor can be well correlated with detector response. Under the small field conditions, the internal fluence correction factor of ionization chambers is considerably dependent on volume averaging and thus on the shape and size of the cavity volume.

CONCLUSIONS

The cema approach is particularly useful at non-reference conditions including when solid-state detectors are used. Perturbation correction factors can be expressed and evaluated by cema ratios in a comprehensive manner. The cema approach can serve to understand the specific response of a detector for dosimetry to be dependent on (a) radiation quality, (b) detector properties, and (c) electron fluence changes caused by the detector. This understanding may also help to decide which detector is best suited for a specific measurement situation.

Experimental determination of the recombination correction factor kS for SNC 125c, SNC 350p and SNC 600c ionization chambers in pulsed photon beams

Accurate ionization chamber measurements of the absorbed dose to water require the correction of incomplete collection of charges created within the chamber volume. According to current dosimetry protocols such as the TRS-398 or the DIN 6800-2, incomplete charge collection is accounted for by the correction factor ks, which can be determined numerically or experimentally. The method proposed by Burns & McEwen (Phys. Med. Biol., 1998) was used in this study to determine the coefficients γ and δ used for the calculation of the correction factor ks of three ionization chambers, the SNC 125c, the SNC 600c and the SNC 350p (all Sun Nuclear Corp., Melbourne, Florida) for an absorbed dose to water range of 0.2mGy to 1.6mGy per pulse in pulsed photon beams. The shift of the effective point of measurement from the reference point Δz and the correction factor kr were determined for the SNC 350p according to the draft DIN 6800-2:2019-07.

Quantitative ionization chamber alignment to a water surface: Performance of multiple chambers

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to experimentally examine the reliability of the gradient chamber alignment point (gCAP) determination method for accurately identifying water surface location with a range of ionization chambers (ICs).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twelve cylindrical ICs were scanned from depth through a water surface into air using a customized high-accuracy scanning system which allows for accurate alignment of the IC with respect to the true water surface. Thirteen other cylindrical ICs and five parallel-plate ICs were scanned using a standard commercially available scanning system. The thirty different ICs used in this study represent 22 different IC models. Measurements were taken with different radiation field parameters such as incident photon beam energies and field sizes. The effects of scan direction and water surface tension were also investigated. The depth at which the gradient of the relative ionization was maximized and discontinuous, the gCAP, was found for each curve. Each measured gCAP depth was compared with the theoretically expected gCAP location, the depth at which the submerged IC outer radius (OR) coincides with the water surface.

RESULTS

When scanning an IC from in water to air, the only parameter that affects the gCAP location is the IC OR. The gCAP location corresponds with the IC central axis positioned at a depth equal to the IC OR within the 0.1 mm measurement scan resolution for all eighteen ICs studied with the commercially available system. Using the customized scanning system, all but three ICs were identified exhibiting a gCAP within the scan resolution, with the other three within 0.25 mm of the expected location. This discrepancy was not observed in the same IC model when using the conventional scanning system. Altering the beam energy from 6 to 25 MV did not alter the gCAP location, nor did variations in the radiation field size or scan parameters. In-air IC response is proportional to the IC wall thickness.

CONCLUSION

The water-to-air scanning method coupled with gCAP analysis identifies the alignment of the IC OR to the water surface within the scanning resolution for all ICs studied. The gCAP method can precisely and reproducibly align the physical center of a given cylindrical IC with the water surface, be applied prospectively or retrospectively, and provides the prospect for automated water surface identification for scanning systems. The gCAP method eliminates the visual subjectivity inherent to current IC-to-water surface alignment techniques, has been validated with a wide variety of commercially available ICs, and should be independent of the scanning system used for data acquisition.

Roos and NACP-02 ion chamber perturbations and water-air stopping-power ratios for clinical electron beams for energies from 4 to 22 MeV

Empirical fits are developed for depth-compensated wall- and cavity-replacement perturbations in the PTW Roos 34001 and IBA / Scanditronix NACP-02 parallel-plate ionisation chambers, for electron beam qualities from 4 to 22 MeV for depths up to approximately 1.1 × R₅₀,D. These are based on calculations using the Monte Carlo radiation transport code EGSnrc and its user codes with a full simulation of the linac treatment head modelled using BEAMnrc. These fits are used with calculated restricted stopping-power ratios between air and water to match measured depth-dose distributions in water from an Elekta Synergy clinical linear accelerator at the UK National Physical Laboratory. Results compare well with those from recent publications and from the IPEM 2003 electron beam radiotherapy Code of Practice.

Monte Carlo study of the depth-dependent fluence perturbation in parallel-plate ionization chambers in electron beams

PURPOSE

The electron fluence inside a parallel-plate ionization chamber positioned in a water phantom and exposed to a clinical electron beam deviates from the unperturbed fluence in water in absence of the chamber. One reason for the fluence perturbation is the well-known "inscattering effect," whose physical cause is the lack of electron scattering in the gas-filled cavity. Correction factors determined to correct for this effect have long been recommended. However, more recent Monte Carlo calculations have led to some doubt about the range of validity of these corrections. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to reanalyze the development of the fluence perturbation with depth and to review the function of the guard rings.

METHODS

Spatially resolved Monte Carlo simulations of the dose profiles within gas-filled cavities with various radii in clinical electron beams have been performed in order to determine the radial variation of the fluence perturbation in a coin-shaped cavity, to study the influences of the radius of the collecting electrode and of the width of the guard ring upon the indicated value of the ionization chamber formed by the cavity, and to investigate the development of the perturbation as a function of the depth in an electron-irradiated phantom. The simulations were performed for a primary electron energy of 6 MeV.

RESULTS

The Monte Carlo simulations clearly demonstrated a surprisingly large in- and outward electron transport across the lateral cavity boundary. This results in a strong influence of the depth-dependent development of the electron field in the surrounding medium upon the chamber reading. In the buildup region of the depth-dose curve, the in-out balance of the electron fluence is positive and shows the well-known dose oscillation near the cavity/water boundary. At the depth of the dose maximum the in-out balance is equilibrated, and in the falling part of the depth-dose curve it is negative, as shown here the first time. The influences of both the collecting electrode radius and the width of the guard ring are reflecting the deep radial penetration of the electron transport processes into the gas-filled cavities and the need for appropriate corrections of the chamber reading. New values for these corrections have been established in two forms, one converting the indicated value into the absorbed dose to water in the front plane of the chamber, the other converting it into the absorbed dose to water at the depth of the effective point of measurement of the chamber. In the Appendix, the in-out imbalance of electron transport across the lateral cavity boundary is demonstrated in the approximation of classical small-angle multiple scattering theory.

CONCLUSIONS

The in-out electron transport imbalance at the lateral boundaries of parallel-plate chambers in electron beams has been studied with Monte Carlo simulation over a range of depth in water, and new correction factors, covering all depths and implementing the effective point of measurement concept, have been developed.

Effective point of measurement for parallel plate and cylindrical ion chambers in megavoltage electron beams

The presence of an air filled ionization chamber in a surrounding medium introduces several fluence perturbations in high energy photon and electron beams which have to be accounted for. One of these perturbations, the displacement effect, may be corrected in two different ways: by a correction factor pdis or by the application of the concept of the effective point of measurement (EPOM). The latter means, that the volume averaged ionization within the chamber is not reported to the chambers reference point but to a point within the air filled cavity. Within this study the EPOM was determined for four different parallel plate and two cylindrical chambers in megavoltage electron beams using Monte Carlo simulations. The positioning of the chambers with this EPOM at the depth of measurement results in a largely depth independent residual perturbation correction, which is determined within this study for the first time. For the parallel plate chambers the EPOM is independent of the energy of the primary electrons. Whereas for the Advanced Markus chamber the position of the EPOM coincides with the chambers reference point, it is shifted for the other parallel plate chambers several tenths of millimeters downstream the beam direction into the air filled cavity. For the cylindrical chambers there is an increasing shift of the EPOM with increasing electron energy. This shift is in upstream direction, i.e. away from the chambers reference point toward the focus. For the highest electron energy the position of the calculated EPOM is in fairly good agreement with the recommendation given in common dosimetry protocols, for the smallest energy, the calculated EPOM positions deviate about 30% from this recommendation.

On the wall perturbation correction for a parallel-plate NACP-02 chamber in clinical electron beams

PURPOSE

In recent years, several Monte Carlo studies have been published concerning the perturbation corrections of a parallel-plate chamber in clinical electron beams. In these studies, a strong depth dependence of the relevant correction factors (p(wall) and P(cav)) for depth beyond the reference depth is recognized and it has been shown that the variation with depth is sensitive to the choice of the chamber's effective point of measurement. Recommendations concerning the positioning of parallel-plate ionization chambers in clinical electron beams are not the same for all current dosimetry protocols. The IAEA TRS-398 as well as the IPEM protocol and the German protocol DIN 6800-2 interpret the depth of measurement within the phantom as the water equivalent depth, i.e., the nonwater equivalence of the entrance window has to be accounted for by shifting the chamber by an amount deltaz. This positioning should ensure that the primary electrons traveling from the surface of the water phantom through the entrance window to the chamber's reference point sustain the same energy loss as the primary electrons in the undisturbed phantom. The objective of the present study is the determination of the shift deltaz for a NACP-02 chamber and the calculation of the resulting wall perturbation correction as a function of depth. Moreover, the contributions of the different chamber walls to the wall perturbation correction are identified.

METHODS

The dose and fluence within the NACP-02 chamber and a wall-less air cavity is calculated using the Monte Carlo code EGSnrc in a water phantom at different depths for different clinical electron beams. In order to determine the necessary shift to account for the nonwater equivalence of the entrance window, the chamber is shifted in steps deltaz around the depth of measurement. The optimal shift deltaz is determined from a comparison of the spectral fluence within the chamber and the bare cavity. The wall perturbation correction is calculated as the ratio between doses for the complete chamber and a wall-less air cavity.

RESULTS

The high energy part of the fluence spectra within the chamber strongly varies even with small chamber shifts, allowing the determination of deltaz within micrometers. For the NACP-02 chamber a shift deltaz = -0.058 cm results. This value is independent of the energy of the primary electrons as well as of the depth within the phantom and it is in good agreement with the value recommended in the German dosimetry protocol. Applying this shift, the calculated wall perturbation correction as a function of depth is varying less than 1% from zero up to the half value depth R50 for electron energies in the range of 6-21 MeV. The remaining depth dependence can mainly be attributed to the scatter properties of the entrance window. When neglecting the nonwater equivalence of the entrance window, the variation of p(wall) with depth is up to 10% and more, especially for low electron energies.

CONCLUSIONS

The variation of the wall perturbation correction for the NACP-02 chamber in clinical electron beams strongly depends on the positioning of the chamber. Applying a shift deltaz = -0.058 cm toward the focus ensures that the primary electron spectrum within the chamber bears the largest resemblance to the fluence of a wall-less cavity. Hence, the influence of the chamber walls on the perturbation correction can be separated out and the residual variation of p(wall) with depth is minimized.

Extraction of depth-dependent perturbation factors for parallel-plate chambers in electron beams using a plastic scintillation detector

PURPOSE

This work presents the experimental extraction of the overall perturbation factor PQ in megavoltage electron beams for NACP-02 and Roos parallel-plate ionization chambers using a plastic scintillation detector (PSD).

METHODS

The authors used a single scanning PSD mounted on a high-precision scanning tank to measure depth-dose curves in 6, 12, and 18 MeV clinical electron beams. The authors also measured depth-dose curves using the NACP-02 and PTW Roos chambers.

RESULTS

The authors found that the perturbation factors for the NACP-02 and Roos chambers increased substantially with depth, especially for low-energy electron beams. The experimental results were in good agreement with the results of Monte Carlo simulations reported by other investigators. The authors also found that using an effective point of measurement (EPOM) placed inside the air cavity reduced the variation of perturbation factors with depth and that the optimal EPOM appears to be energy dependent.

CONCLUSIONS

A PSD can be used to experimentally extract perturbation factors for ionization chambers. The dosimetry protocol recommendations indicating that the point of measurement be placed on the inside face of the front window appear to be incorrect for parallel-plate chambers and result in errors in the R50 of approximately 0.4 mm at 6 MeV, 1.0 mm at 12 MeV, and 1.2 mm at 18 MeV.

Replacement correction factors for plane-parallel ion chambers in electron beams

PURPOSE

Plane-parallel chambers are recommended by dosimetry protocols for measurements in (especially low-energy) electron beams. In dosimetry protocols, the replacement correction factor P(repl) is assumed unity for "well-guarded" plane-parallel chambers in electron beams when the front face of the cavity is the effective point of measurement. There is experimental evidence that ion chambers which are not well-guarded (e.g., Markus) have nonunity P(repl) values. Monte Carlo simulations are employed in this study to investigate the replacement correction factors for plane-parallel chambers in electron beams.

METHODS

Using previously established Monte Carlo calculation methods, the values of P(repl) are calculated with high statistical precision for the cavities of a variety of plane-parallel chambers in a water phantom irradiated by various electron beams. The dependences of the values of P(repl) on the beam quality, phantom depth, as well as the guard ring width are studied.

RESULTS

In the dose fall-off region for low-energy beams, the P(repl) values are very sensitive to depth. It is found that this is mainly due to the gradient effect, which originates from the fact that the effective point of measurement for many plane-parallel chambers should not be at the front face of the cavity but rather shifted toward the center of the cavity by a fraction of a millimeter. Using the front face of the cavity as the effective point of measurement, the calculated values of P(repl) at d(ref) are not unity for some well-guarded plane-parallel chambers. The calculated P(repl) values for the Roos chamber are close to 1 for all electron beams. The calculation results for the Markus chamber are in good agreement with the measured values.

CONCLUSIONS

The appropriate selection of the effective point of measurement for plane-parallel chambers in electron beams is an important issue. If the effective point of measurement is correctly accounted for, the P(repl) values would be almost independent of depth. Both the guard ring width and the ratio of the collecting volume diameter to the cavity thickness can influence the values of P(repl) For a diameter to thickness ratio of 5 (e.g., NACP02 chamber), the guard width has to be 6 mm for the chamber to be considered as well-guarded, i.e., have a P(repl) value of 1.00.