Fe-Ni composition dependence of magnetic anisotropy in artificially fabricated L1 0-ordered FeNi films

Laser Melting of Mechanically Alloyed FeNi: A Study of the Correlation between Microstructure and Texture with Magnetic and Physical Properties

The current study attempts to establish the interrelation between microstructure and magnetic properties induced during laser melting of the FeNi alloy. This study demonstrates the optimization of laser parameters for defect-free, uniform, and chemically homogeneous FeNi alloy synthesis. Mechanically alloyed FeNi (50-50 atom %) powders obtained after 12 and 24 h milling, with average particle sizes of 15 and 7 μm, were used as starting materials. It was found that the optimum range of laser power density for synthesis of dense and defect-free solids is between 1 and 1.4 J/mm2. For laser melting under similar conditions, 12 h milled FeNi powder produces a larger grain (∼100 μm) with a preferred texture of (001), compared to 25 μm grain size in 24 h milled FeNi, with random texture. Smaller grain size is correlated with higher resistance to domain wall movement, resulting in higher coercivity and remanence in the laser-melted samples prepared from 24 h of milled powder. The presence of microtexture in laser-melted samples prepared from 12 h milled powder is related to a higher anisotropy.

The Future of Permanent-Magnet-Based Electric Motors: How Will Rare Earths Affect Electrification?

In this review article, we focus on the relationship between permanent magnets and the electric motor, as this relationship has not been covered in a review paper before. With the increasing focus on battery research, other parts of the electric system have been neglected. To make electrification a smooth transition, as has been promised by governing bodies, we need to understand and improve the electric motor and its main component, the magnet. Today's review papers cover only the engineering perspective of the electric motor or the material-science perspective of the magnetic material, but not both together, which is a crucial part of understanding the needs of electric-motor design and the possibilities that a magnet can give them. We review the road that leads to today's state-of-the-art in electric motors and magnet design and give possible future roads to tackle the obstacles ahead and reach the goals of a fully electric transportation system. With new technologies now available, like additive manufacturing and artificial intelligence, electric motor designers have not yet exploited the possibilities the new freedom of design brings. New out-of-the-box designs will have to emerge to realize the full potential of the new technology. We also focus on the rare-earth crisis and how future price fluctuations can be avoided. Recycling plays a huge role in this, and developing a self-sustained circular economy will be critical, but the road to it is still very steep, as ongoing projects show.

Accelerating Nature: Induced Atomic Order in Equiatomic FeNi

The production of locally atomically ordered FeNi (known by its meteoric mineral name, tetrataenite) is confirmed in bulk samples by simultaneous conversion X-ray and backscattered γ-ray 57 Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy. Up to 22 volume percent of the tetragonal tetrataenite phase is quantified in samples thermally treated under simultaneous magnetic- and stress-field conditions for a period of 6 weeks, with the remainder identified as the cubic FeNi alloy. In contrast, all precursor samples consist only of the cubic FeNi alloy. Data from the processed alloys are validated using Mössbauer parameters derived from natural meteoritic tetrataenite. The meteoritic tetrataenite exhibits a substantially higher degree of atomic order than do the processed samples, consistent with their low uniaxial magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy of ≈1 kJ·m-3 . These results suggest that targeted refinements to the processing conditions of FeNi will foster greater atomic order and increased magnetocrystalline anisotropy, leading to an enhanced magnetic energy product. These outcomes also suggest that deductions concerning paleomagnetic conditions of the solar system, as derived from meteoritic data, may warrant re-examination and re-evaluation. Additionally, this work strengthens the argument that tetrataenite may indeed become a member of the advanced permanent magnet portfolio, helping to meet rapidly escalating green energy imperatives.

High and Ultra-High Coercive Materials in Spring-Exchange Systems-Review, Simulations and Perspective

The paper refers to the spring-exchange magnetic systems containing magnetically soft and hard phases. This work consists of two parts. The first part is a brief review of hard magnetic materials, with special attention paid to ultra-high coercive compounds, as well as selected spring-exchange systems. The second part is a theoretical discussion based on the Monte Carlo micromagnetic simulations about the possible enhancement of the hard magnetic properties of systems composed of magnetically soft, as well as high and ultra-high coercive, phases. As shown, the analyzed systems reveal the potential for improving the |BH|_max parameter, filling the gap between conventional and Nd-based permanent magnets. Moreover, the carried-out simulations indicate the advantages and limitations of the spring-exchange composites, which could lead to a reduction in rare earth elements in permanent magnet applications.

Large magnetic anisotropy in Co-Fe-Ni-N ordered structures: a first-principles study

Material design of promising rare-earth free permanent magnet requires tailoring and controlling the intrinsic magnetic properties namely large saturation magnetizationμ₀M_s, giant uniaxial magnetic anisotropyK_u, and high Curie temperatureT_C. Based on first-principles electronic structure calculations, we present a detailed analysis for the intrinsic magnetic properties of Co_xFe_1-xNi and Co_xFe_1-xNiN_0.25ordered structures. We predict an enhanced structural stability with improvedK_uranging from 1.53-2.29 MJ m^-3for Co_xFe_1-xNiN_0.25ordered structures, with the exception of CoNiN_0.25having planar anisotropy. Detailed analysis of the predicted largeK_u, based on perturbation theory and electronic structure calculations, is attributed to the cumulative effect of contribution from the increased tetragonal distortion and induced orbital distortion from the simultaneous Co substitution and interstitial N-doping. By tailoring theK_u, we may create efficient and affordable PMs, bridging the gap between commonly used ferrite and high-performance Nd-Fe-B magnets.

Rare-Earth-Free Magnets: Enhancing Magnetic Anisotropy and Spin Exchange Toward High-TC Hf2MIr5B2 (M = Mn, Fe)

Designing new rare-earth-free (REF) permanent magnetic materials (PMM) to replace the high performing but critically restrained rare-earth-based PMM remains a great challenge to the scientific community. Here, we report on the rational design of new REF PMM, Hf₂MIr₅B₂ (M = Fe, Mn) via a theory-experiment combined approach. Density functional theory (DFT) predicted strong interchain M-M spin-exchange coupling and large magnetocrystalline anisotropy energies (E_MAE) for the new compounds, suggesting potential intrinsic PMM properties. Subsequent experimental bulk syntheses and magnetic characterizations established the highest ordering temperature (T_C ∼ 900 K) for Hf₂FeIr₅B₂ and the highest intrinsic coercivity (H_C) value for Hf₂MnIr₅B₂ (H_C = 62.1 kA/m) reported to date for Ti₃Co₅B₂-type compounds. Importantly, at room temperature both phases show significant coercivities due to intrinsic factors only, hinting at their huge potential to create REF PMM by improving extrinsic factors such as controlling the microstructure and the domain orientation.

Alloying effect on the order-disorder transformation in tetragonal FeNi

Tetragonal ([Formula: see text]) FeNi is a promising material for high-performance rare-earth-free permanent magnets. Pure tetragonal FeNi is very difficult to synthesize due to its low chemical order-disorder transition temperature ([Formula: see text] K), and thus one must consider alternative non-equilibrium processing routes and alloy design strategies that make the formation of tetragonal FeNi feasible. In this paper, we investigate by density functional theory as implemented in the exact muffin-tin orbitals method whether alloying FeNi with a suitable element can have a positive impact on the phase formation and ordering properties while largely maintaining its attractive intrinsic magnetic properties. We find that small amount of non-magnetic (Al and Ti) or magnetic (Cr and Co) elements increase the order-disorder transition temperature. Adding Mo to the Co-doped system further enhances the ordering temperature while the Curie temperature is decreased only by a few degrees. Our results show that alloying is a viable route to stabilizing the ordered tetragonal phase of FeNi.

Effect of Pd alloying on structural, electronic and magnetic properties of L10Fe-Ni

We present a systematic study of the effect of Pd-alloying on phase stability, electronic structure, and elastic properties in L1₀Fe-Ni using density-functional theory. Being from the same group of the periodic table, Pd is the best candidate for chemical alloying. The Fe-Ni/Fe-Pd/Ni-Pd bond-length increases with increasing Pd-concentration, which weakens the hybridization between low lying energy states below Fermi-level. The reduced hybridization decreases the relative thermodynamic stability of L1₀Fe(Ni_1-xPd_x) untilx= 0.75. Beyond this concentration, the relative stability gets enhanced, which is attributed to a unique change in the lattice distortion (c/a). The elastic properties show a non-monotonous behavior as a function ofx, which is again due to a specific change-over in the uniaxial strain. We found that Pd alloying increases the local Fe moment and structural anisotropy of L1₀FeNi, which are important for applications such as microwave absorption, refrigeration systems, recording devices, imaging and sensors. We believe that the present study for the chemical alloying effect can provide critical insights toward the understanding of electronic-structure and elastic behavior of other technologically important materials.

Pressure effect on the order-disorder transformation in L10 FeNi

The ordered phase of the FeNi system is known for its promising magnetic properties that make it a first-class rare-earth free permanent magnet. Mapping out the parameter space controlling the order-disorder transformation is an important step towards finding growth conditions that stabilize the [Formula: see text] phase of FeNi. In this work, we study the magnetic properties and chemical order-disorder transformation in FeNi as a function of lattice expansion by utilizing ab initio alloy theory. The largest volume expansion considered here is 29% which corresponds to a pressure of [Formula: see text] GPa. The thermodynamic and magnetic calculations are formulated in terms of a long-range order parameter, which is subsequently used to find the ordering temperature as a function of pressure. We show that negative pressure promotes ordering, meaning that synthetic routes involving an increase of the volume of FeNi are expected to expand the stability field of the [Formula: see text] phase.

Micromagnetic modelling of nanorods array-based L10-FeNi/SmCo5exchange-coupled composites

Exchange-coupled nanocomposites are considered as the most promising materials for production of high-energy performance permanent magnets, which can exceed neodymium ones in terms of energy product. In this work, micromagnetic simulations of L10-FeNi/SmCo5composites based on the initially anisotropic structure of nanorods array were performed. Texturing effect on magnetic properties was investigated. It was revealed that even 30% of anisotropy axes misalignment of grains in L10-FeNi phase would lead to only ≈10% drop of coercivity. To maximize magnetic properties of the composites, parameters of microstructure were optimized for 120 × 120 array of interacting nanorods and were found to be 40 nm nanorod diameter and 12-20 nm interrod distance. The estimated diameter of nanorods and the packing density of the array provide energy product values of 149 kJ m-3. Influence of interrod distance on energy product values was explored. Approaches for production of exchange-coupled composites based on anisotropic nanostructures were proposed.

Crystal structure prediction of magnetic materials

We present a methodology to predict magnetic systems using ab initio methods. By employing crystal structure method and spin-polarized calculations, we explore the relation between crystalline structures and their magnetic properties. In this work, testbed cases of transition metal alloys (FeCr, FeMn, FeCo and FeNi) are study in the ferromagnetic case. We find soft-magnetic properties for FeCr, FeMn while for FeCo and FeNi hard-magnetic are predicted. In particular, for the family of FeNi, a candidate structure with energy lower than the tetrataenite was found. The structure has a saturation magnetization (M _s) of 1.2 MA m^-1, magnetic anisotropy energy (MAE) above 1200 kJ m^-3 and hardness value close to 1. Theoretically, this system made of abundant elements could be the right candidate for permanent magnet applications. Comparing with the state-of-the-art (Nd₂Fe₁₄B) hard-magnet, (M _s of 1.28 MA m^-1 and MAE of 4900 kJ m^-3) is appealing to explore this low energy polymorph of FeNi further. Considering the relatively limited number of magnets, predicting a new system may open routes for free rare-earth magnets. Furthermore, the use of the computational algorithm as the one presented in this work, hold promises in this field for which in near future improvements will allow to study numerous complex systems, larger simulations cells and tackled long-range antiferromagnetic cases.

Electronic correlation effects and local magnetic moments in L10phase of FeNi

We study the electronic and magnetic properties of L10phase of FeNi, a perspective rare-earth-free permanent magnet, by using a combination of density functional and dynamical mean-field theory. Although L10FeNi has a slightly tetragonally distorted fcc lattice, we find that magnetic properties of its constituent Fe atoms resemble those in pure bcc Fe. In particular, our results indicate the presence of well-localized magnetic moments on Fe sites, which are formed due to Hund's exchange. At the same time, magnetism of Ni sites is much more itinerant. Similarly to pure bcc Fe, the self-energy of Fe 3d states is found to show the non-Fermi-liquid behavior. This can be explained by peculiarities of density of Fe 3d states, which has pronounced peaks near the Fermi level. Our study of local spin correlation function and momentum dependence of particle-hole bubble suggests that the magnetic exchange in this substance is expected to be of RKKY-type, with iron states providing local-moment contribution, and the states corresponding to nickel sites (including virtual hopping to iron sites) providing itinerant contribution.

Density Functional Theory description of the order-disorder transformation in Fe-Ni

The thermodynamic ordering transformation of tetragonal FeNi system is investigated by the Exact Muffin-Tin Orbitals (EMTO) method. The tetragonal distortion of the unit cell is taken into account and the free energy is calculated as a function of long-range order and includes the configurational, vibrational, electronic and magnetic contributions. We find that both configurational and vibrational effects are important and that the vibrational effect lowers the predicted transformation temperature by about 480 K compared to the value obtained merely from the configurational free energy. The predicted temperature is in excellent agreement with the experimental value when all contributions are taken into account. We also perform spin dynamics calculations for the magnetic transition temperature and find it to be in agreement with the experiments. The present research opens new opportunities for quantum-mechanical engineering of the chemical and magnetic ordering in tetrataenite.

L10-FeNi films on Au-Cu-Ni buffer-layer: a high-throughput combinatorial study

The fct L10-FeNi alloy is a promising candidate for the development of high performance critical-elements-free magnetic materials. Among the different materials, the Au-Cu-Ni alloy has resulted very promising; however, a detailed investigation of the effect of the buffer-layer composition on the formation of the hard FeNi phase is still missing. To accelerate the search of the best Au-Cu-Ni composition, a combinatorial approach based on High-Throughput (HT) experimental methods has been exploited in this paper. HT magnetic characterization methods revealed the presence of a hard magnetic phase with an out-of-plane easy-axis, whose coercivity increases from 0.49 kOe up to 1.30 kOe as the Au content of the Cu-Au-Ni buffer-layer decreases. Similarly, the out-of-plane magneto-crystalline anisotropy energy density increases from 0.12 to 0.35 MJ/m3. This anisotropy is attributed to the partial formation of the L10 FeNi phase induced by the buffer-layer. In the range of compositions we investigated, the buffer-layer structure does not change significantly and the modulation of the magnetic properties with the Au content in the combinatorial layer is mainly related to the different nature and extent of interlayer diffusion processes, which have a great impact on the formation and order degree of the L10 FeNi phase.

Synthesis of single-phase L10-FeNi magnet powder by nitrogen insertion and topotactic extraction

Tetrataenite (L1₀-FeNi) is a promising candidate for use as a permanent magnet free of rare-earth elements because of its favorable properties. In this study, single-phase L1₀-FeNi powder with a high degree of order was synthesized through a new method, nitrogen insertion and topotactic extraction (NITE). In the method, FeNiN, which has the same ordered arrangement as L1₀-FeNi, is formed by nitriding A1-FeNi powder with ammonia gas. Subsequently, FeNiN is denitrided by topotactic reaction to derive single-phase L1₀-FeNi with an order parameter of 0.71. The transformation of disordered-phase FeNi into the L1₀ phase increased the coercive force from 14.5 kA/m to 142 kA/m. The proposed method not only significantly accelerates the development of magnets using L1₀-FeNi but also offers a new synthesis route to obtain ordered alloys in non-equilibrium states.

High coercivity, anisotropic, heavy rare earth-free Nd-Fe-B by Flash Spark Plasma Sintering

ABSTARCT

In the drive to reduce the critical Heavy Rare Earth (HRE) content of magnets for green technologies, HRE-free Nd-Fe-B has become an attractive option. HRE is added to Nd-Fe-B to enhance the high temperature performance of the magnets. To produce similar high temperature properties without HRE, a crystallographically textured nanoscale grain structure is ideal; and this conventionally requires expensive "die upset" processing routes. Here, a Flash Spark Plasma Sintering (FSPS) process has been applied to a Dy-free Nd_30.0Fe_61.8Co_5.8Ga_0.6Al_0.1B_0.9 melt spun powder (MQU-F, neo Magnequench). Rapid sinter-forging of a green compact to near theoretical density was achieved during the 10 s process, and therefore represents a quick and efficient means of producing die-upset Nd-Fe-B material. The microstructure of the FSPS samples was investigated by SEM and TEM imaging, and the observations were used to guide the optimisation of the process. The most optimal sample is compared directly to commercially die-upset forged (MQIII-F) material made from the same MQU-F powder. It is shown that the grain size of the FSPS material is halved in comparison to the MQIII-F material, leading to a 14% increase in coercivity (1438 kA m^-1) and matched remanence (1.16 T) giving a BH_max of 230 kJ m^-3.

Resonant x-ray diffraction revealing chemical disorder in sputtered L10 FeNi on Si(0 0 1)

In the search for new rare earth free permanent magnetic materials, FeNi with a L10 structure is a possible candidate. We have synthesized the phase in the thin film form by sputtering onto HF-etched Si(0 0 1) substrates. Monatomic layers of Fe and Ni were alternately deposited on a Cu buffer layer, all of which grew epitaxially on the Si substrates. A good crystal structure and epitaxial relationship was confirmed by in-house x-ray diffraction (XRD). The chemical order, which to some part is the origin of an uniaxial magnetic anisotropy, was measured by resonant XRD. The 0 0 1 superlattice reflection was split in two symmetrically spaced peaks due to a composition modulation of the Fe and Ni layers. Furthermore the influence of roughness induced chemical anti-phase domains on the RXRD pattern is exemplified. A smaller than expected magnetic uniaxial anisotropy energy was obtained, which is partly due to the composition modulations, but the major reason is concluded to be the Cu buffer surface roughness.