1
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Karpov D, Djeghdi K, Holler M, Abdollahi SN, Godlewska K, Donnelly C, Yuasa T, Sai H, Wiesner UB, Wilts BD, Steiner U, Musya M, Fukami S, Ohno H, Gunkel I, Diaz A, Llandro J. High-resolution three-dimensional imaging of topological textures in nanoscale single-diamond networks. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2024:10.1038/s41565-024-01735-w. [PMID: 39043824 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-024-01735-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024]
Abstract
Topological defects-extended lattice deformations that are robust against local defects and annealing-have been exploited to engineer novel properties in both hard and soft materials. Yet, their formation kinetics and nanoscale three-dimensional structure are poorly understood, impeding their benefits for nanofabrication. We describe the fabrication of a pair of topological defects in the volume of a single-diamond network (space group Fd3 ¯ m) templated into gold from a triblock terpolymer crystal. Using X-ray nanotomography, we resolve the three-dimensional structure of nearly 70,000 individual single-diamond unit cells with a spatial resolution of 11.2 nm, allowing analysis of the long-range order of the network. The defects observed morphologically resemble the comet and trefoil patterns of equal and opposite half-integer topological charges observed in liquid crystals. Yet our analysis of strain in the network suggests typical hard matter behaviour. Our analysis approach does not require a priori knowledge of the expected positions of the nodes in three-dimensional nanostructured systems, allowing the identification of distorted morphologies and defects in large samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Karpov
- Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Grenoble, France
| | - K Djeghdi
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- Swiss National Center of Competence in Research Bio-Inspired Materials, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - M Holler
- Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - S Narjes Abdollahi
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - K Godlewska
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - C Donnelly
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Physics of Solids, Dresden, Germany
- International Institute for Sustainability with Knotted Chiral Meta Matter (WPI-SKCM2), Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - T Yuasa
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Yokkaichi Research Center, JSR Corporation, Yokkaichi, Japan
| | - H Sai
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Simpson Querrey Institute for Bionanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - U B Wiesner
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Kavli Institute at Cornell for Nanoscale Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - B D Wilts
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- Swiss National Center of Competence in Research Bio-Inspired Materials, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- Department of Chemistry and Physics of Materials, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - U Steiner
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- Swiss National Center of Competence in Research Bio-Inspired Materials, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - M Musya
- Laboratory for Nanoelectronics and Spintronics, Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - S Fukami
- Laboratory for Nanoelectronics and Spintronics, Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
- Center for Science and Innovation in Spintronics, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
- Center for Innovative Integrated Electronic Systems, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
- WPI Advanced Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
- Inamori Research Institute for Science, Kyoto, Japan
| | - H Ohno
- Laboratory for Nanoelectronics and Spintronics, Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
- Center for Science and Innovation in Spintronics, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
- Center for Innovative Integrated Electronic Systems, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
- WPI Advanced Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - I Gunkel
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- Swiss National Center of Competence in Research Bio-Inspired Materials, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - A Diaz
- Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - J Llandro
- Laboratory for Nanoelectronics and Spintronics, Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.
- Center for Science and Innovation in Spintronics, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.
- Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd, Tokyo, Japan.
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2
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Kuschlan S, Chiarcos R, Laus M, Pérez-Murano F, Llobet J, Fernandez-Regulez M, Bonafos C, Perego M, Seguini G, De Michielis M, Tallarida G. Periodic Arrays of Dopants in Silicon by Ultralow Energy Implantation of Phosphorus Ions through a Block Copolymer Thin Film. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:57928-57940. [PMID: 37314734 PMCID: PMC10739587 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c03782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In this work, block copolymer lithography and ultralow energy ion implantation are combined to obtain nanovolumes with high concentrations of phosphorus atoms periodically disposed over a macroscopic area in a p-type silicon substrate. The high dose of implanted dopants grants a local amorphization of the silicon substrate. In this condition, phosphorus is activated by solid phase epitaxial regrowth (SPER) of the implanted region with a relatively low temperature thermal treatment preventing diffusion of phosphorus atoms and preserving their spatial localization. Surface morphology of the sample (AFM, SEM), crystallinity of the silicon substrate (UV Raman), and position of the phosphorus atoms (STEM- EDX, ToF-SIMS) are monitored during the process. Electrostatic potential (KPFM) and the conductivity (C-AFM) maps of the sample surface upon dopant activation are compatible with simulated I-V characteristics, suggesting the presence of an array of not ideal but working p-n nanojunctions. The proposed approach paves the way for further investigations on the possibility to modulate the dopant distribution within a silicon substrate at the nanoscale by changing the characteristic dimension of the self-assembled BCP film.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Kuschlan
- CNR-IMM,
Unit of Agrate Brianza, Via C. Olivetti 2, Agrate Brianza I-20864, Italy
- Università
del Piemonte Orientale ‘‘A. Avogadro’’, Viale T. Michel 11, Alessandria I-15121, Italy
| | - Riccardo Chiarcos
- Università
del Piemonte Orientale ‘‘A. Avogadro’’, Viale T. Michel 11, Alessandria I-15121, Italy
| | - Michele Laus
- Università
del Piemonte Orientale ‘‘A. Avogadro’’, Viale T. Michel 11, Alessandria I-15121, Italy
| | | | - Jordi Llobet
- Institute
of Microelectronics of Barcelona (IMB-CNM, CSIC), Bellaterra 08193, Spain
| | | | - Caroline Bonafos
- CEMES-CNRS,
Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse 31055, France
| | - Michele Perego
- CNR-IMM,
Unit of Agrate Brianza, Via C. Olivetti 2, Agrate Brianza I-20864, Italy
| | - Gabriele Seguini
- CNR-IMM,
Unit of Agrate Brianza, Via C. Olivetti 2, Agrate Brianza I-20864, Italy
| | - Marco De Michielis
- CNR-IMM,
Unit of Agrate Brianza, Via C. Olivetti 2, Agrate Brianza I-20864, Italy
| | - Graziella Tallarida
- CNR-IMM,
Unit of Agrate Brianza, Via C. Olivetti 2, Agrate Brianza I-20864, Italy
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3
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Foley K, Walters KB. Solution and Film Self-Assembly Behavior of a Block Copolymer Composed of a Poly(ionic Liquid) and a Stimuli-Responsive Weak Polyelectrolyte. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:33684-33700. [PMID: 37744857 PMCID: PMC10515397 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c03989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Cu(0)-mediated atom transfer radical polymerization was used to synthesize a poly(ionic liquid), poly[4-vinylbenzyl-3-butylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide] (PVBBImTf2N), a stimuli-responsive polyelectrolyte, poly[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate] (PDMAEMA), and a novel block copolymer formed from these two polymers. The synthesis of the block copolymer, poly[2-(dimethylamino) ethyl methacrylate]-block-[poly(4-vinylbenzyl-3-butylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide] (PDMAEMA-b-PVBBImTf2N), was examined to evaluate the control of "livingness" polymerization, as indicated by molecular weight, characterizations of degree of polymerization, and 1HNMR spectroscopy. 2D DOSY NMR measurements revealed the successful formation of block copolymer and the connection between the two polymer blocks. PDMAEMA-b-PVBBImTf2N was further characterized for supramolecular interactions in both the bulk and solution states through FTIR and 1H NMR spectroscopies. While the block copolymer demonstrated similar intermolecular behavior to the PIL homopolymer in the bulk state as indicated by FTIR, hydrogen bonding and counterion interactions in solution were observed in polar organic solvent through 1H NMR measurements. The DLS characterization revealed that the PDMAEMA-b-PVBBImTf2N block copolymer forms a network-like aggregated structure due to a combination of hydrogen bonding between the PDMAEMA and PIL group and electrostatic repulsive interactions between PIL blocks. This structure was found to collapse upon the addition of KNO3 while still maintaining hydrogen bonding interactions. AFM-IR analysis demonstrated varied morphologies, with spherical PDMAEMA in PVBBImTf2N matrix morphology exhibited in the region approaching the film center. AFM-IR further revealed signals from silica nano-contaminates, which selectively interacted with the PDMAEMA spheres, demonstrating the potential for the PDMAEMA-b-PVBBImTf2N PIL block copolymer in polymer-inorganic nanoparticle composite applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla Foley
- Ralph E. Martin Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, United States
| | - Keisha B. Walters
- Ralph E. Martin Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, United States
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4
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Baumgarten N, Mumtaz M, Merino DH, Solano E, Halila S, Bernard J, Drockenmuller E, Fleury G, Borsali R. Interface Manipulations Using Cross-Linked Underlayers and Surface-Active Diblock Copolymers to Extend Morphological Diversity in High-χ Diblock Copolymer Thin Films. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:23736-23748. [PMID: 37134266 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c02247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Top and bottom interfaces of high-χ cylinder-forming polystyrene-block-maltoheptaose (PS-b-MH) diblock copolymer (BCP) thin films are manipulated using cross-linked copolymer underlayers and a fluorinated phase-preferential surface-active polymer (SAP) additive to direct the self-assembly (both morphology and orientation) of BCP microdomains into sub-10 nm patterns. A series of four photo-cross-linkable statistical copolymers with various contents of styrene, a 4-vinylbenzyl azide cross-linker, and a carbohydrate-based acrylamide are processed into 15 nm-thick cross-linked passivation layers on silicon substrates. A partially fluorinated analogue of the PS-b-MH phase-preferential SAP additive is designed to tune the surface energy of the top interface. The self-assembly of PS-b-MH thin films on top of different cross-linked underlayers and including 0-20 wt % of SAP additive is investigated by atomic force microscopy and synchrotron grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering analysis. The precise manipulation of the interfaces of ca. 30 nm thick PS-b-MH films not only allows the control of the in-plane/out-of-plane orientation of hexagonally packed (HEX) cylinders but also promotes epitaxial order-order transitions from HEX cylinders to either face-centered orthorhombic or body-centered cubic spheres without modifying the volume fraction of both blocks. This general approach paves the way for the controlled self-assembly of other high-χ BCP systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noémie Baumgarten
- Univ Lyon, Université Lyon 1, INSA de Lyon, CNRS, Ingénierie des Matériaux Polymères, UMR 5223, F-69003, Lyon, France
| | | | - Daniel Hermida Merino
- Dutch-Belgian Beamline, Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, F-38000 Grenoble, France
- Departamento de Física Aplicada, CINBIO, Universidade de Vigo, Campus Lagoas-Marcosende, E36310 Vigo, Galicia, Spain
| | - Eduardo Solano
- NCD-SWEET Beamline, ALBA Synchrotron Light Source, 08290 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Sami Halila
- Univ Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CERMAV, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Julien Bernard
- Univ Lyon, Université Lyon 1, INSA de Lyon, CNRS, Ingénierie des Matériaux Polymères, UMR 5223, F-69003, Lyon, France
| | - Eric Drockenmuller
- Univ Lyon, Université Lyon 1, INSA de Lyon, CNRS, Ingénierie des Matériaux Polymères, UMR 5223, F-69003, Lyon, France
| | - Guillaume Fleury
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, LCPO, UMR 5629, F-33600 Pessac, France
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5
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Tang Y, Cai T, Lin J, Zhang L. Precise Control over Positioning and Orientation of Nanorods in Block Copolymer Nanocomposites via Regulation of Coassembly Pathways. Macromolecules 2023. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c01996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yutong Tang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymeric Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Tianyun Cai
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymeric Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Jiaping Lin
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymeric Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Liangshun Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymeric Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
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6
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Guo L, Xu J, Du B. Self-assembly of ABCBA Linear Pentablock Terpolymers. POLYM REV 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/15583724.2023.2178008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Motor Vehicle Biofuel Technology, Department of Polymer Science & Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Junting Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Motor Vehicle Biofuel Technology, Department of Polymer Science & Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Binyang Du
- State Key Laboratory of Motor Vehicle Biofuel Technology, Department of Polymer Science & Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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7
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Polyacrylonitrile- b-Polystyrene Block Copolymer-Derived Hierarchical Porous Carbon Materials for Supercapacitor. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14235109. [PMID: 36501504 PMCID: PMC9739205 DOI: 10.3390/polym14235109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of block copolymers as a sacrificial template has been demonstrated to be a powerful method for obtaining porous carbons as electrode materials in energy storage devices. In this work, a block copolymer of polystyrene and polyacrylonitrile (PS-b-PAN) has been used as a precursor to produce fibers by electrospinning and powdered carbons, showing high carbon yield (~50%) due to a low sacrificial block content (fPS ≈ 0.16). Both materials have been compared structurally (in addition to comparing their electrochemical behavior). The porous carbon fibers showed superior pore formation capability and exhibited a hierarchical porous structure, with small and large mesopores and a relatively high surface area (~492 m2/g) with a considerable quantity of O/N surface content, which translates into outstanding electrochemical performance with excellent cycle stability (close to 100% capacitance retention after 10,000 cycles) and high capacitance value (254 F/g measured at 1 A/g).
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8
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Priming self-assembly pathways by stacking block copolymers. Nat Commun 2022; 13:6947. [PMID: 36376380 PMCID: PMC9663688 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34729-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Block copolymers spontaneously self-assemble into well-defined nanoscale morphologies. Yet equilibrium assembly gives rise to a limited set of structures. Non-equilibrium strategies can, in principle, expand diversity by exploiting self-assembly's responsive nature. In this vein, we developed a pathway priming strategy combining control of thin film initial configurations and ordering history. We sequentially coat distinct materials to form prescribed initial states, and use thermal annealing to evolve these manifestly non-equilibrium states through the assembly landscape, traversing normally inaccessible transient structures. We explore the enormous associated hyperspace, spanning processing (annealing temperature and time), material (composition and molecular weight), and layering (thickness and order) dimensions. We demonstrate a library of exotic non-native morphologies, including vertically-oriented perforated lamellae, aqueduct structures (vertical lamellar walls with substrate-pinned perforations), parapets (crenellated lamellae), and networks of crisscrossing lamellae. This enhanced structural control can be used to modify functional properties, including accessing regimes that surpass their equilibrium analogs.
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9
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Merekalov AS, Derikov YI, Ezhov AA, Kriksin YA, Erukhimovich IY, Kudryavtsev YV. Orientation control of the hexagonal and lamellar phases in thin block copolymers films using in-plane AC electric field. POLYMER 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2022.125544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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10
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Ma S, Hou Y, Hao J, Lin C, Zhao J, Sui X. Well-Defined Nanostructures by Block Copolymers and Mass Transport Applications in Energy Conversion. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14214568. [PMID: 36365562 PMCID: PMC9655174 DOI: 10.3390/polym14214568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
With the speedy progress in the research of nanomaterials, self-assembly technology has captured the high-profile interest of researchers because of its simplicity and ease of spontaneous formation of a stable ordered aggregation system. The self-assembly of block copolymers can be precisely regulated at the nanoscale to overcome the physical limits of conventional processing techniques. This bottom-up assembly strategy is simple, easy to control, and associated with high density and high order, which is of great significance for mass transportation through membrane materials. In this review, to investigate the regulation of block copolymer self-assembly structures, we systematically explored the factors that affect the self-assembly nanostructure. After discussing the formation of nanostructures of diverse block copolymers, this review highlights block copolymer-based mass transport membranes, which play the role of “energy enhancers” in concentration cells, fuel cells, and rechargeable batteries. We firmly believe that the introduction of block copolymers can facilitate the novel energy conversion to an entirely new plateau, and the research can inform a new generation of block copolymers for more promotion and improvement in new energy applications.
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11
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Synthesis and self-assembly of polystyrene block polyacrylic acid for sub 10 nm feature size. REACT FUNCT POLYM 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2022.105352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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12
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Carthew J, Taylor JBJ, Garcia-Cruz MR, Kiaie N, Voelcker NH, Cadarso VJ, Frith JE. The Bumpy Road to Stem Cell Therapies: Rational Design of Surface Topographies to Dictate Stem Cell Mechanotransduction and Fate. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:23066-23101. [PMID: 35192344 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c22109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cells sense and respond to a variety of physical cues from their surrounding microenvironment, and these are interpreted through mechanotransductive processes to inform their behavior. These mechanisms have particular relevance to stem cells, where control of stem cell proliferation, potency, and differentiation is key to their successful application in regenerative medicine. It is increasingly recognized that surface micro- and nanotopographies influence stem cell behavior and may represent a powerful tool with which to direct the morphology and fate of stem cells. Current progress toward this goal has been driven by combined advances in fabrication technologies and cell biology. Here, the capacity to generate precisely defined micro- and nanoscale topographies has facilitated the studies that provide knowledge of the mechanotransducive processes that govern the cellular response as well as knowledge of the specific features that can drive cells toward a defined differentiation outcome. However, the path forward is not fully defined, and the "bumpy road" that lays ahead must be crossed before the full potential of these approaches can be fully exploited. This review focuses on the challenges and opportunities in applying micro- and nanotopographies to dictate stem cell fate for regenerative medicine. Here, key techniques used to produce topographic features are reviewed, such as photolithography, block copolymer lithography, electron beam lithography, nanoimprint lithography, soft lithography, scanning probe lithography, colloidal lithography, electrospinning, and surface roughening, alongside their advantages and disadvantages. The biological impacts of surface topographies are then discussed, including the current understanding of the mechanotransductive mechanisms by which these cues are interpreted by the cells, as well as the specific effects of surface topographies on cell differentiation and fate. Finally, considerations in translating these technologies and their future prospects are evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Carthew
- Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Jason B J Taylor
- Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Maria R Garcia-Cruz
- Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Nasim Kiaie
- Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Nicolas H Voelcker
- Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Melbourne Centre for Nanofabrication, Victorian Node of the Australian National Fabrication Facility, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
- ARC Centre for Cell and Tissue Engineering Technologies, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- CSIRO Manufacturing, Bayview Avenue, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
| | - Victor J Cadarso
- Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Centre to Impact Antimicrobial Resistance, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Jessica E Frith
- Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- ARC Centre for Cell and Tissue Engineering Technologies, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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13
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Sun X, Liu K, Zhao N, Bian F, Yang C, Huang Y. In Situ Grazing-Incidence SAXS Investigation of Thermal-Induced Self-Assembly Process of PS- b-PMMA Films Deposited on Surface-Modified Substrate. J Phys Chem B 2022; 126:1625-1632. [PMID: 35143207 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.1c09443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Directed self-assembly of block copolymers (BCPs) is widely investigated for its potential application in surface patterning. The self-assembly kinetics of BCP based on modified layers is the key to realizing structural control for obtaining highly ordered lamellar grains. In this study, morphological evolution of PS-b-PMMA films during the thermal-induced self-assembly process was investigated via the in situ grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) technique. In the first heating stage, reorientation of lamellar grains occurred as the temperature increased above the glass transition temperature. Then, a fast increase in the lamellar repeat period L0 was observed, which is considered as a phase separation process. Whereas the size of the lamellar grain ξ was observed to have rapidly increased in the stage wherein the temperature was held at 230 °C, the L0 was almost constant. This result indicates that the formation of ordered structure in PS-b-PMMA films was mainly determined by two periods: phase separation of block molecules followed by growth of grains in the nanodomain. In addition, it was interesting that the better-order nanodomains were obtained with thermal annealing at a faster heating rate. These findings suggest that accomplishing ordered structure control in a large area could be realized via the design of a proper heating profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaokang Sun
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, Hunan Province China.,Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 239 Zhang Heng Road, Pudong New District, Shanghai 201204, China.,Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China
| | - Kai Liu
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, Hunan Province China.,Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 239 Zhang Heng Road, Pudong New District, Shanghai 201204, China.,Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China
| | - Nie Zhao
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, Hunan Province China
| | - Fenggang Bian
- Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 239 Zhang Heng Road, Pudong New District, Shanghai 201204, China.,Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Chunming Yang
- Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 239 Zhang Heng Road, Pudong New District, Shanghai 201204, China.,Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yuying Huang
- Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 239 Zhang Heng Road, Pudong New District, Shanghai 201204, China.,Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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14
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Majoinen J, Bouilhac C, Rannou P, Borsali R. Unidirectional Perpendicularly Aligned Lamella-Structured Oligosaccharide (A) ABA Triblock Elastomer (B) Thin Films Utilizing Triazolium +/TFSI - Ionic Nanochannels. ACS Macro Lett 2022; 11:140-148. [PMID: 35574795 PMCID: PMC8772381 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.1c00712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We designed and synthesized high χ-low N-maltoheptaose-(triazolium+/N(SO2CF3)2-)-polyisoprene-(triazolium+/N(SO2CF3)2-)-maltoheptaose ABA triblock elastomers featuring triazolium+/N(SO2CF3)2- (TFSI-) counteranion ionic interfaces separating their constituting polymeric sub-blocks. Spin-coated and solvent-vapor-annealed (SVA) MH1.2k-(T+/TFSI-)-PI4.3k-(T+/TFSI-)-MH1.2k thin films demonstrate interface-induced charge cohesion through ca. 1 nm "thick" ionic nanochannels which facilitate the self-assembly of a perpendicularly aligned lamellar structure. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and (grazing-incidence) small-angle X-ray scattering ((GI)SAXS) characterizations of MH1.2k-(T+/TFSI-)-PI4.3k-(T+/TFSI-)-MH1.2k and pristine triBCP analogous thin films revealed sub-10 nm block copolymer (BCP) self-assembly and unidirectionally aligned nanostructures developed over several μm2 areas. Solvated TFSI- counterions enhance the oligosaccharide sub-block packing during SVA. The overall BCP phase behavior was mapped through SAXS characterizations comparing di- vs triblock polymeric architectures, a middle PI sub-block with two different molecular masses, and TFSI- or I- counteranion effects. This work highlights the benefits of inducing single-point electrostatic interactions within chemical structures of block copolymers to master the long-range self-assembly of prescribed morphologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Majoinen
- Université
Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CERMAV, 38000 Grenoble, France
- Université
Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, INAC-SyMMES, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Cécile Bouilhac
- ICGM,
Université Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, 34095 Montpellier, France
| | - Patrice Rannou
- Université
Grenoble Alpes, Université Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, Grenoble INP, LEPMI, 38000 Grenoble, France
- Université
Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, INAC-SyMMES, 38000 Grenoble, France
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15
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Leniart A, Pula P, Style RW, Majewski PW. Pathway-Dependent Grain Coarsening of Block Copolymer Patterns under Controlled Solvent Evaporation. ACS Macro Lett 2022; 11:121-126. [PMID: 35574792 PMCID: PMC8772373 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.1c00677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Solvent evaporation annealing (SEA) is a straightforward, single-step casting and annealing method of block copolymers (BCP) processing yielding large-grained morphologies in a very short time. Here, we present a quantitative analysis of BCP grain-coarsening in thin films under controlled evaporation of the solvent. Our study is aimed at understanding time and BCP concentration influence on the rate of the lateral growth of BCP grains. By systematically investigating the coarsening kinetics at various BCP concentrations, we observed a steeply decreasing exponential dependence of the kinetics power-law time exponent on polymer concentration. We used this dependence to formulate a mathematical model of BCP ordering under nonstationary conditions and a 2D, time- and concentration-dependent coarsening rate diagram, which can be used as an aid in engineering the BCP processing pathway in SEA and also in other directed self-assembly methods that utilize BCP-solvent interactions such as solvent vapor annealing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Przemyslaw Pula
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Warsaw 02089, Poland
| | - Robert W. Style
- Department
of Materials, Soft and Living Materials, ETH Zürich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 10, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
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16
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Goodson AD, Rick MS, Troxler JE, Ashbaugh HS, Albert JNL. Blending Linear and Cyclic Block Copolymers to Manipulate Nanolithographic Feature Dimensions. ACS APPLIED POLYMER MATERIALS 2022; 4:327-337. [PMID: 35059643 PMCID: PMC8762643 DOI: 10.1021/acsapm.1c01313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Block copolymers (BCPs) consist of two or more covalently bound chemically distinct homopolymer blocks. These macromolecules have emerging applications in photonics, membrane separations, and nanolithography stemming from their self-assembly into regular nanoscale structures. Theory suggests that cyclic BCPs should form features up to 40% smaller than their linear analogs while also exhibiting superior thin-film stability and assembly dynamics. However, the complex syntheses required to produce cyclic polymers mean that a need for pure cyclic BCPs would present a challenge to large-scale manufacturing. Here, we employ dissipative particle dynamics simulations to probe the self-assembly behavior of cyclic/linear BCP blends, focusing on nanofeature size and interfacial width as these qualities are critical to nanopatterning applications. We find that for mixtures of symmetric cyclic and linear polymers with equivalent lengths, up to 10% synthetic impurity has a minimal impact on cyclic BCP feature dimensions and interfacial roughness. On the other hand, blending with cyclic BCPs provides a route to "fine-tune" linear BCP feature sizes. We analyze simulated blend domain spacings within the context of strong segregation theory and find significant deviations between simulation and theory that arise from molecular-level packing motifs not included in theory. These insights into blend self-assembly will assist experimentalists in rationally designing BCP materials for advanced nanolithography applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy D. Goodson
- Department of Chemical and
Biomolecular Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, United States
| | - Maxwell S. Rick
- Department of Chemical and
Biomolecular Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, United States
| | - Jessie E. Troxler
- Department of Chemical and
Biomolecular Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, United States
| | - Henry S. Ashbaugh
- Department of Chemical and
Biomolecular Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, United States
| | - Julie N. L. Albert
- Department of Chemical and
Biomolecular Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, United States
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17
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Residual changes and thickness effects in glass-forming polymer thin films after solvent vapor annealing. POLYMER 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2021.124417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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18
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Merekalov AS, Derikov YI, Artemov VV, Ezhov AA, Kudryavtsev YV. Vertical Cylinder-to-Lamella Transition in Thin Block Copolymer Films Induced by In-Plane Electric Field. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:3959. [PMID: 34833258 PMCID: PMC8622010 DOI: 10.3390/polym13223959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Morphological transition between hexagonal and lamellar patterns in thin polystyrene-block-poly(4-vinyl pyridine) films simultaneously exposed to a strong in-plane electric field and saturated solvent vapor is studied with atomic force and scanning electron microscopy. In these conditions, standing cylinders made of 4-vinyl pyridine blocks arrange into threads up to tens of microns long along the field direction and then partially merge into standing lamellas. In the course of rearrangement, the copolymer remains strongly segregated, with the minor component domains keeping connectivity between the film surfaces. The ordering tendency becomes more pronounced if the cylinders are doped with Au nanorods, which can increase their dielectric permittivity. Non-selective chloroform vapor works particularly well, though it causes partial etching of the indium tin oxide cathode. On the contrary, 1,4-dioxane vapor selective to polystyrene matrix does not allow for any morphological changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexey S. Merekalov
- Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (A.S.M.); (Y.I.D.); (A.A.E.)
| | - Yaroslav I. Derikov
- Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (A.S.M.); (Y.I.D.); (A.A.E.)
| | - Vladimir V. Artemov
- Shubnikov Institute of Crystallography, Federal Scientific Research Centre “Crystallography and Photonics”, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119333 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Alexander A. Ezhov
- Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (A.S.M.); (Y.I.D.); (A.A.E.)
- Faculty of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Yaroslav V. Kudryavtsev
- Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (A.S.M.); (Y.I.D.); (A.A.E.)
- Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
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19
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Ho K, Kim KS, de Beer S, Walker GC. Chemical Composition and Strain at Interfaces between Different Morphologies in Block Copolymer Thin Films. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2021; 37:12723-12731. [PMID: 34693716 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c02169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Transitional composition between two thin-film morphologies of the block copolymer, polystyrene-block-poly(tert-butyl acrylate) (PS-b-PtBuA), was investigated using near-field infrared spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy mechanical measurements. These techniques allowed block identification with nanoscale spatial resolution and elucidated the material's sub-surface composition. PS was found to form coronae around the PtBuA block in spherical valleys on flat areas of the film, and coronae of PtBuA surrounding the PS lamellae were observed at the edge of the polymer film, where parallel lamellae are formed. Furthermore, we found that the peak position and width varied by location, which may be a result of block composition, chain tension, or substrate interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Ho
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Kris S Kim
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Sissi de Beer
- Sustainable Polymer Chemistry, Department of Molecules & Materials, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, Enschede 7500 AE, The Netherlands
| | - Gilbert C Walker
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
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20
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Robertson M, Zhou Q, Ye C, Qiang Z. Developing Anisotropy in Self-Assembled Block Copolymers: Methods, Properties, and Applications. Macromol Rapid Commun 2021; 42:e2100300. [PMID: 34272778 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202100300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Block copolymers (BCPs) self-assembly has continually attracted interest as a means to provide bottom-up control over nanostructures. While various methods have been demonstrated for efficiently ordering BCP nanodomains, most of them do not generically afford control of nanostructural orientation. For many applications of BCPs, such as energy storage, microelectronics, and separation membranes, alignment of nanodomains is a key requirement for enabling their practical use or enhancing materials performance. This review focuses on summarizing research progress on the development of anisotropy in BCP systems, covering a variety of topics from established aligning techniques, resultant material properties, and the associated applications. Specifically, the significance of aligning nanostructures and the anisotropic properties of BCPs is discussed and highlighted by demonstrating a few promising applications. Finally, the challenges and outlook are presented to further implement aligned BCPs into practical nanotechnological applications, where exciting opportunities exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Robertson
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Qingya Zhou
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Changhuai Ye
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Zhe Qiang
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
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21
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Structural Evolution of Nanophase Separated Block Copolymer Patterns in Supercritical CO 2. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11030669. [PMID: 33800510 PMCID: PMC7998665 DOI: 10.3390/nano11030669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nanopatterns can readily be formed by annealing block copolymers (BCPs) in organic solvents at moderate or high temperatures. However, this approach can be challenging from an environmental and industrial point of view. Herein, we describe a simple and environmentally friendly alternative to achieve periodically ordered nanoscale phase separated BCP structures. Asymmetric polystyrene-b-poly(ethylene oxide) (PS-b-PEO) thin film patterns of different molecular weight were achieved by annealing in supercritical carbon dioxide (sc-CO2). Microphase separation of PS-b-PEO (16,000–5000) film patterns were achieved by annealing in scCO2 at a relatively low temperature was previously reported by our group. The effects of annealing temperature, time and depressurisation rates for the polymer system were also discussed. In this article, we have expanded this study to create new knowledge on the structural and dimensional evolution of nanohole and line/space surface periodicity of four other different molecular weights PS-b-PEO systems. Periodic, well defined, hexagonally ordered films of line and hole patterns were obtained at low CO2 temperatures (35–40 °C) and pressures (1200–1300 psi). Further, the changes in morphology, ordering and feature sizes for a new PS-b-PEO system (42,000–11,500) are discussed in detail upon changing the scCO2 annealing parameters (temperature, film thickness, depressurization rates, etc.). In relation to our previous reports, the broad annealing temperature and depressurisation rate were explored together for different film thicknesses. In addition, the effects of SCF annealing for three other BCP systems (PEO-b-PS, PS-b-PDMS, PS-b-PLA) is also investigated with similar processing conditions. The patterns were also generated on a graphoepitaxial substrate for device application.
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22
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Pandey A, Murmu K, Gooh Pattader PS. Non-equilibrium thermal annealing of a polymer blend in bilayer settings for complex micro/nano-patterning. RSC Adv 2021; 11:10183-10193. [PMID: 35423522 PMCID: PMC8695700 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra00017a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Micro phase separation in a thin film of a polymer blend leads to interesting patterns on different substrates. A plethora of studies in this field discussed the effect of the surface energy of the underlying tethered polymer brush or substrate on the final morphology of the polymer blend. The conventional process toward the final morphology is rather slow. Here, aiming fast lithography, we induce the kinetically driven morphological evolution by rapid thermal annealing (RTA) of the polymer blend of polystyrene (PS) and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) in bilayer settings at a very high temperature. The underlying film consists of untethered constituent homopolymers or their blend or random-co-polymer (RCP). Apart from the phase inversion of the blend on the PS homopolymer, a rich morphology of the blend on the RCP underlayer is uncovered with systematic investigation of the film using sequential washing with selective solvents. The dissolution characteristics and the thermal stability of the constituent polymers corroborated the observation. Based on the understanding of the morphological evolution, fabrication of a complex shaped micro/nano-pattern with multiple length scales is demonstrated using this blend/RCP system. This study shows a novel methodology for easy fabrication of hierarchical small length scale complex structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankur Pandey
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 781039 India
| | - Kaniska Murmu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 781039 India
| | - Partho Sarathi Gooh Pattader
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 781039 India
- Center for Nanotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati 781039 India
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23
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Gu J, Zhang R, Zhang L, Lin J. Epitaxial Assembly of Nanoparticles in a Diblock Copolymer Matrix: Precise Organization of Individual Nanoparticles into Regular Arrays. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c00028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiabin Gu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymeric Materials, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Runrong Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymeric Materials, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Liangshun Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymeric Materials, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Jiaping Lin
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymeric Materials, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
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24
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Leniart A, Pula P, Tsai EHR, Majewski PW. Large-Grained Cylindrical Block Copolymer Morphologies by One-Step Room-Temperature Casting. Macromolecules 2020; 53:11178-11189. [PMID: 33380751 PMCID: PMC7759006 DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
We report a facile method of ordering block copolymer (BCP) morphologies in which the conventional two-step casting and annealing steps are replaced by a single-step process where microphase separation and grain coarsening are seamlessly integrated within the casting protocol. This is achieved by slowing down solvent evaporation during casting by introducing a nonvolatile solvent into the BCP casting solution that effectively prolongs the duration of the grain-growth phase. We demonstrate the utility of this solvent evaporation annealing (SEA) method by producing well-ordered large-molecular-weight BCP thin films in a total processing time shorter than 3 min without resorting to any extra laboratory equipment other than a basic casting device, i.e., spin- or blade-coater. By analyzing the morphologies of the quenched samples, we identify a relatively narrow range of polymer concentration in the wet film, just above the order-disorder concentration, to be critical for obtaining large-grained morphologies. This finding is corroborated by the analysis of the grain-growth kinetics of horizontally oriented cylindrical domains where relatively large growth exponents (1/2) are observed, indicative of a more rapid defect-annihilation mechanism in the concentrated BCP solution than in thermally annealed BCP melts. Furthermore, the analysis of temperature-resolved kinetics data allows us to calculate the Arrhenius activation energy of the grain coarsening in this one-step BCP ordering process.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Przemyslaw Pula
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Warsaw 02089, Poland
| | - Esther H. R. Tsai
- Center
for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven
National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
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25
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Blevins AK, Cox LM, Hu L, Drisko JA, Lin H, Bowman CN, Killgore JP, Ding Y. Spatially Controlled Permeability and Stiffness in Photopatterned Two-Stage Reactive Polymer Films for Enhanced CO2 Barrier and Mechanical Toughness. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adrienne K. Blevins
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
| | - Lewis M. Cox
- Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59715, United States
| | - Leiqing Hu
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, New York 14260, United States
| | | | - Haiqing Lin
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, New York 14260, United States
| | - Christopher N. Bowman
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
| | | | - Yifu Ding
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
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26
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Lee D, Lee J, Park J, Chang T. Orientation of Microphase in Polystyrene- b-polyisoprene Thin Film under Solvent Vapor Annealing. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c01017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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27
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Kollmetz T, Monteiro A I, Gerrard JA, Malmström J. Polystyrene- block-poly(ethylene oxide) Thin Films Fabricated from a Solvent Mixture for the Co-Assembly of Polymers and Proteins. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:26365-26373. [PMID: 33110964 PMCID: PMC7581074 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c02392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The co-assembly of peptides and proteins in poly(styrene-block-ethylene oxide) (PS-b-PEO) thin films has proven to be a promising method to fabricate polymer-biomolecule functional materials. Contrary to the covalent immobilization of biomolecules on surfaces, co-assembly presents the opportunity to arrange cargo within thin films, which can be released upon exposure to an aqueous environment. The use of a mixed solvent system ensures the solubilization of hydrophobic polymer as well as the solubilization and protection of the biomolecule cargo. However, to produce largely defect-free films of PS-b-PEO from a solvent mixture containing water is challenging due to the narrow range of solvent miscibility and polymer/protein solubility. This work explores the limits of using a benzene/methanol/water solvent mixture for the production of thin PS-b-PEO films and provides a template for the fabrication optimization of block copolymer thin films in different complex solvent systems. The film quality is analyzed using optical microscopy and atomic force microscopy and correlated to the solvent composition. By adjusting the solvent composition to 80/18.8/1.2 vol % benzene/methanol/water, it was possible to reliably fabricate thin films with less than 1% macroscopic defect surface coverage. Using the optimized solvent composition, we also demonstrate the fabrication of ordered PS-b-PEO films containing lysozyme. Furthermore, we show the release of lysozyme into aqueous media, which highlights the potential use of such films for drug delivery applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarek Kollmetz
- Department
of Chemical and Materials Engineering, The
University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
- The
MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
| | - Isabela Monteiro A
- Department
of Chemical and Materials Engineering, The
University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
- The
MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
| | - Juliet A. Gerrard
- The
MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
- School
of Biological Sciences, The University of
Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
- School
of Chemical Sciences, The University of
Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Jenny Malmström
- Department
of Chemical and Materials Engineering, The
University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
- The
MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
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28
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Noack MM, Doerk GS, Li R, Streit JK, Vaia RA, Yager KG, Fukuto M. Autonomous materials discovery driven by Gaussian process regression with inhomogeneous measurement noise and anisotropic kernels. Sci Rep 2020; 10:17663. [PMID: 33077759 PMCID: PMC7573639 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-74394-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
A majority of experimental disciplines face the challenge of exploring large and high-dimensional parameter spaces in search of new scientific discoveries. Materials science is no exception; the wide variety of synthesis, processing, and environmental conditions that influence material properties gives rise to particularly vast parameter spaces. Recent advances have led to an increase in the efficiency of materials discovery by increasingly automating the exploration processes. Methods for autonomous experimentation have become more sophisticated recently, allowing for multi-dimensional parameter spaces to be explored efficiently and with minimal human intervention, thereby liberating the scientists to focus on interpretations and big-picture decisions. Gaussian process regression (GPR) techniques have emerged as the method of choice for steering many classes of experiments. We have recently demonstrated the positive impact of GPR-driven decision-making algorithms on autonomously-steered experiments at a synchrotron beamline. However, due to the complexity of the experiments, GPR often cannot be used in its most basic form, but rather has to be tuned to account for the special requirements of the experiments. Two requirements seem to be of particular importance, namely inhomogeneous measurement noise (input-dependent or non-i.i.d.) and anisotropic kernel functions, which are the two concepts that we tackle in this paper. Our synthetic and experimental tests demonstrate the importance of both concepts for experiments in materials science and the benefits that result from including them in the autonomous decision-making process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus M Noack
- The Center for Advanced Mathematics for Energy Research Applications (CAMERA), Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA.
| | - Gregory S Doerk
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973, USA
| | - Ruipeng Li
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973, USA
| | - Jason K Streit
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratories, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH, 45433, USA
| | - Richard A Vaia
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratories, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH, 45433, USA
| | - Kevin G Yager
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973, USA.
| | - Masafumi Fukuto
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973, USA.
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29
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Jung FA, Berezkin AV, Tejsner TB, Posselt D, Smilgies D, Papadakis CM. Solvent Vapor Annealing of a Diblock Copolymer Thin Film with a Nonselective and a Selective Solvent: Importance of Pathway for the Morphological Changes. Macromol Rapid Commun 2020; 41:e2000150. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.202000150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Florian A. Jung
- Technische Universität München Physik‐Department Physik der weichen Materie James‐Franck‐Str. 1 Garching 85748 Germany
| | - Anatoly V. Berezkin
- Technische Universität München Physik‐Department Physik der weichen Materie James‐Franck‐Str. 1 Garching 85748 Germany
| | - Tim B. Tejsner
- IMFUFA Department of Science and Environment Roskilde University P.O. Box 260 Roskilde 4000 Denmark
| | - Dorthe Posselt
- IMFUFA Department of Science and Environment Roskilde University P.O. Box 260 Roskilde 4000 Denmark
| | - Detlef‐M. Smilgies
- Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS) Wilson Laboratory Cornell University Ithaca NY 14853 USA
| | - Christine M. Papadakis
- Technische Universität München Physik‐Department Physik der weichen Materie James‐Franck‐Str. 1 Garching 85748 Germany
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30
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Leniart A, Pula P, Sitkiewicz A, Majewski PW. Macroscopic Alignment of Block Copolymers on Silicon Substrates by Laser Annealing. ACS NANO 2020; 14:4805-4815. [PMID: 32159943 PMCID: PMC7497666 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c00696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Laser annealing is a competitive alternative to conventional oven annealing of block copolymer (BCP) thin films enabling rapid acceleration and precise spatial control of the self-assembly process. Localized heating by a moving laser beam (zone annealing), taking advantage of steep temperature gradients, can additionally yield aligned morphologies. In its original implementation it was limited to specialized germanium-coated glass substrates, which absorb visible light and exhibit low-enough thermal conductivity to facilitate heating at relatively low irradiation power density. Here, we demonstrate a recent advance in laser zone annealing, which utilizes a powerful fiber-coupled near-IR laser source allowing rapid BCP annealing over a large area on conventional silicon wafers. The annealing coupled with photothermal shearing yields macroscopically aligned BCP films, which are used as templates for patterning metallic nanowires. We also report a facile method of transferring laser-annealed BCP films onto arbitrary surfaces. The transfer process allows patterning substrates with a highly corrugated surface and single-step rapid fabrication of multilayered nanomaterials with complex morphologies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Przemyslaw Pula
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, 02089, Poland
| | | | - Pawel W. Majewski
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, 02089, Poland
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31
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Gu J, Zhang R, Zhang L, Lin J. Harnessing Zone Annealing to Program Directional Motion of Nanoparticles in Diblock Copolymers: Creating Periodically Well-Ordered Nanocomposites. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c00101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiabin Gu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymeric Materials, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Runrong Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymeric Materials, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Liangshun Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymeric Materials, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Jiaping Lin
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced Polymeric Materials, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
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32
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Qi Y, Nathani A, Zhang J, Song Z, Sharma CS, Varshney SK. Synthesis of amphiphilic poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(methyl methacrylate) containing trityl ether acid cleavable junction group and its self-assembly into ordered nanoporous thin films. E-POLYMERS 2020. [DOI: 10.1515/epoly-2020-0013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
AbstractA strategy for the synthesis of well defined poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(methyl methacrylate) diblock copolymers containing trityl ether acid cleavable junctions is demonstrated. This approach is achieved by using a combination of poly(ethylene glycol) macroinitiator containing a trityl ether end group, which is susceptible to acid cleavage, and atom transfer radical polymerization technique. The trityl ether linkage between blocks can be readily cleaved in solution or in solid phase under very mild acid condition, which has been confirmed by 1H NMR. These diblock copolymers have been used to successfully fabricate nanoporous thin films by acid cleavage of trityl ether junction followed by complete removal of poly(ethylene glycol) block. The fabricated nanoporous thin films may have a wide range of application such as Recessed Nanodisk-array electrode (RNE) or as a template to fabricate nanoelectrode array for senor applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinghua Qi
- Polymer Source Inc., 124 Avro Street, Dorval (Montreal), Quebec H9P 2X8, Canada
| | - Akash Nathani
- Creative & Advanced Research Based On Nanomaterials (CARBON) Lab, Department of Chemical engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Kandi-502285, Telangana, India
| | - Jianxin Zhang
- Polymer Source Inc., 124 Avro Street, Dorval (Montreal), Quebec H9P 2X8, Canada
| | - Zhengji Song
- Polymer Source Inc., 124 Avro Street, Dorval (Montreal), Quebec H9P 2X8, Canada
| | - Chandra Shekhar Sharma
- Creative & Advanced Research Based On Nanomaterials (CARBON) Lab, Department of Chemical engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Kandi-502285, Telangana, India
| | - Sunil K. Varshney
- Polymer Source Inc., 124 Avro Street, Dorval (Montreal), Quebec H9P 2X8, Canada
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33
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Doerk GS, Li R, Fukuto M, Yager KG. Wet Brush Homopolymers as “Smart Solvents” for Rapid, Large Period Block Copolymer Thin Film Self-Assembly. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b02296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory S. Doerk
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Ruipeng Li
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Masafumi Fukuto
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Kevin G. Yager
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
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34
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Characterisation of the PS-PMMA Interfaces in Microphase Separated Block Copolymer Thin Films by Analytical (S)TEM. NANOMATERIALS 2020; 10:nano10010141. [PMID: 31941037 PMCID: PMC7022429 DOI: 10.3390/nano10010141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Block copolymer (BCP) self-assembly is a promising tool for next generation lithography as microphase separated polymer domains in thin films can act as templates for surface nanopatterning with sub-20 nm features. The replicated patterns can, however, only be as precise as their templates. Thus, the investigation of the morphology of polymer domains is of great importance. Commonly used analytical techniques (neutron scattering, scanning force microscopy) either lack spatial information or nanoscale resolution. Using advanced analytical (scanning) transmission electron microscopy ((S)TEM), we provide real space information on polymer domain morphology and interfaces between polystyrene (PS) and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) in cylinder- and lamellae-forming BCPs at highest resolution. This allows us to correlate the internal structure of polymer domains with line edge roughnesses, interface widths and domain sizes. STEM is employed for high-resolution imaging, electron energy loss spectroscopy and energy filtered TEM (EFTEM) spectroscopic imaging for material identification and EFTEM thickness mapping for visualisation of material densities at defects. The volume fraction of non-phase separated polymer species can be analysed by EFTEM. These methods give new insights into the morphology of polymer domains the exact knowledge of which will allow to improve pattern quality for nanolithography.
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35
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Shao J, Jiang N, Zhang H, Yang Y, Tang P. Target-Directed Design of Phase Transition Path for Complex Structures of Rod-Coil Block Copolymers. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:20367-20380. [PMID: 31815241 PMCID: PMC6894153 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b02984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
We apply the string method to the self-consistent mean-field theory framework of the rod-coil block copolymer system to calculate the minimum energy pathways in the rearrangement transitions of lamellae and cylinders with different orientations under certain epitaxial growth relationship. Metastable phases appearing in the reordering transition pathway tend to form the structure at low χN side of the order-order transition boundary compared with the initial phase. In particular, for complex network, metastable phases, such as single gyroid and perforated lamellae, need to select a rearrangement transition between lamellae or cylinders near the order-disorder transition boundary with the same epitaxial growth relationship but different orientations. It is confirmed that this strategy for obtaining complex metastable phases by rational design of rearrangement transition between specific phases in the phase diagram can be applied to a wide range of χN as well as the coil-coil block copolymer system. We further investigate the rearrangement transition behavior combining with the analysis of contribution from the free energy, entropy, degree of mixing between different blocks, and the average orientation degree of rods during the phase transitions. Based on this mechanism, we have developed a target-directed design strategy for constructing self-assembled metastable structures of rod-coil block copolymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyu Shao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular
Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Nuofei Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular
Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Hongdong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular
Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Yuliang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular
Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Ping Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular
Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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36
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Xu X, Man X, Doi M, Ou-Yang ZC, Andelman D. Defect Removal by Solvent Vapor Annealing in Thin Films of Lamellar Diblock Copolymers. Macromolecules 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b01181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xinpeng Xu
- Physics Program, Guangdong Technion − Israel Institute of Technology, Shantou, Guangdong 515063, China
- Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, 32000, Israel
| | - Xingkun Man
- Center of Soft Matter Physics and Its Applications and School of Physics and Nuclear Energy Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Masao Doi
- Center of Soft Matter Physics and Its Applications and School of Physics and Nuclear Energy Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Zhong-can Ou-Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Theoretical Physics, Institute of Theoretical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - David Andelman
- Raymond and Beverly Sackler School of Physics and Astronomy, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel
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37
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Liao Y, Liu K, Chen WC, Wei B, Borsali R. Robust Sub-10 nm Pattern of Standing Sugar Cylinders via Rapid “Microwave Cooking”. Macromolecules 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b01513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yingjie Liao
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Display and System Application, Ministry of Education, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, China
- University Grenoble Alpes, CERMAV-CNRS, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Kangping Liu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Display and System Application, Ministry of Education, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, China
| | - Wen-Chang Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Bin Wei
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Display and System Application, Ministry of Education, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200072, China
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38
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Liu K, Yang CM, Yang BM, Zhang L, Huang WC, Ouyang XP, Qi FG, Zhao N, Bian FG. Directed Self-assembly of Vertical PS-b-PMMA Nanodomains Grown on Multilayered Polyelectrolyte Films. CHINESE JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10118-019-2315-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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39
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Basutkar MN, Majewski PW, Doerk GS, Toth K, Osuji CO, Karim A, Yager KG. Aligned Morphologies in Near-Edge Regions of Block Copolymer Thin Films. Macromolecules 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b01703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Monali N. Basutkar
- Department of Polymer Engineering, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
| | | | - Gregory S. Doerk
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Kristof Toth
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United States
| | - Chinedum O. Osuji
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Alamgir Karim
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77204, United States
| | - Kevin G. Yager
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
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40
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A Kriging-Based Approach to Autonomous Experimentation with Applications to X-Ray Scattering. Sci Rep 2019; 9:11809. [PMID: 31413339 PMCID: PMC6694190 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-48114-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Modern scientific instruments are acquiring data at ever-increasing rates, leading to an exponential increase in the size of data sets. Taking full advantage of these acquisition rates will require corresponding advancements in the speed and efficiency of data analytics and experimental control. A significant step forward would come from automatic decision-making methods that enable scientific instruments to autonomously explore scientific problems—that is, to intelligently explore parameter spaces without human intervention, selecting high-value measurements to perform based on the continually growing experimental data set. Here, we develop such an autonomous decision-making algorithm that is physics-agnostic, generalizable, and operates in an abstract multi-dimensional parameter space. Our approach relies on constructing a surrogate model that fits and interpolates the available experimental data, and is continuously refined as more data is gathered. The distribution and correlation of the data is used to generate a corresponding uncertainty across the surrogate model. By suggesting follow-up measurements in regions of greatest uncertainty, the algorithm maximally increases knowledge with each added measurement. This procedure is applied repeatedly, with the algorithm iteratively reducing model error and thus efficiently sampling the parameter space with each new measurement that it requests. We validate the method using synthetic data, demonstrating that it converges to faithful replica of test functions more rapidly than competing methods, and demonstrate the viability of the approach in an experimental context by using it to direct autonomous small-angle (SAXS) and grazing-incidence small-angle (GISAXS) x-ray scattering experiments.
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41
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Cheng X, Böker A, Tsarkova L. Temperature-Controlled Solvent Vapor Annealing of Thin Block Copolymer Films. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:E1312. [PMID: 31390732 PMCID: PMC6722758 DOI: 10.3390/polym11081312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Solvent vapor annealing is as an effective and versatile alternative to thermal annealing to equilibrate and control the assembly of polymer chains in thin films. Here, we present scientific and practical aspects of the solvent vapor annealing method, including the discussion of such factors as non-equilibrium conformational states and chain dynamics in thin films in the presence of solvent. Homopolymer and block copolymer films have been used in model studies to evaluate the robustness and the reproducibility of the solvent vapor processing, as well as to assess polymer-solvent interactions under confinement. Advantages of utilizing a well-controlled solvent vapor environment, including practically interesting regimes of weakly saturated vapor leading to poorly swollen states, are discussed. Special focus is given to dual temperature control over the set-up instrumentation and to the potential of solvo-thermal annealing. The evaluated insights into annealing dynamics derived from the studies on block copolymer films can be applied to improve the processing of thin films of crystalline and conjugated polymers as well as polymer composite in confined geometries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Cheng
- Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Polymer Research IAP, Geiselbergstr. 69, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
- Lehrstuhl für Polymermaterialien und Polymertechnologie, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Alexander Böker
- Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Polymer Research IAP, Geiselbergstr. 69, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
- Lehrstuhl für Polymermaterialien und Polymertechnologie, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Larisa Tsarkova
- Deutsches Textilforschungszentrum Nord-West (DNTW), Adlerstr. 1, 47798 Krefeld, Germany.
- Chair of Colloid Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1-3, 119991 Moscow, Russia.
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42
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Weller DW, Galuska L, Wang W, Ehlenburg D, Hong K, Gu X. Roll-to-Roll Scalable Production of Ordered Microdomains through Nonvolatile Additive Solvent Annealing of Block Copolymers. Macromolecules 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b00772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel W. Weller
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi 39406, United States
| | - Luke Galuska
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi 39406, United States
| | - Weiyu Wang
- Chemical Sciences Divisions and Center for Nanophase Material Sciences (CNMS), Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Dakota Ehlenburg
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi 39406, United States
| | - Kunlun Hong
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Xiaodan Gu
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi 39406, United States
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43
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Liu T, Liu G. Block copolymers for supercapacitors, dielectric capacitors and batteries. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2019; 31:233001. [PMID: 30925144 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/ab0d77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Block copolymer-based energy storage emerges as an active interdisciplinary research field. This topical review presents a survey of the recent advances in block copolymers for energy storage. In the first section, we introduce the background of electrochemical energy storage and block copolymer thermodynamics. In the second section, we discuss the current understandings of block copolymer chemistry, processing, pore size, and ionic conductivity. In the third section, we summarize the design principles and state-of-the-art applications of block copolymers in three energy storage devices, namely, supercapacitors, dielectric capacitors, and batteries. Lastly, we present our perspectives on future possible breakthroughs and associated challenges that are essential to propel the development of advanced block copolymers for energy storage. We expect the review to encourage innovative studies on integrating block copolymers into energy storage applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyu Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States of America
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44
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Kreuzer LP, Widmann T, Hohn N, Wang K, Bießmann L, Peis L, Moulin JF, Hildebrand V, Laschewsky A, Papadakis CM, Müller-Buschbaum P. Swelling and Exchange Behavior of Poly(sulfobetaine)-Based Block Copolymer Thin Films. Macromolecules 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b00443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lucas P. Kreuzer
- Lehrstuhl für Funktionelle Materialien/Fachgebiet Physik weicher Materie, Physik Department, Technische Universität München, James-Franck-Str. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Tobias Widmann
- Lehrstuhl für Funktionelle Materialien/Fachgebiet Physik weicher Materie, Physik Department, Technische Universität München, James-Franck-Str. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Nuri Hohn
- Lehrstuhl für Funktionelle Materialien/Fachgebiet Physik weicher Materie, Physik Department, Technische Universität München, James-Franck-Str. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Kun Wang
- Lehrstuhl für Funktionelle Materialien/Fachgebiet Physik weicher Materie, Physik Department, Technische Universität München, James-Franck-Str. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Lorenz Bießmann
- Lehrstuhl für Funktionelle Materialien/Fachgebiet Physik weicher Materie, Physik Department, Technische Universität München, James-Franck-Str. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Leander Peis
- Lehrstuhl für Funktionelle Materialien/Fachgebiet Physik weicher Materie, Physik Department, Technische Universität München, James-Franck-Str. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Jean-Francois Moulin
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht at Heinz Maier-Leibnitz Zentrum, Lichtenbergstr. 1, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Viet Hildebrand
- Institut für Chemie, Universität Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24−25, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - André Laschewsky
- Institut für Chemie, Universität Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24−25, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institut für Angewandte Polymerforschung, Geiselbergstr. 69, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Christine M. Papadakis
- Lehrstuhl für Funktionelle Materialien/Fachgebiet Physik weicher Materie, Physik Department, Technische Universität München, James-Franck-Str. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Peter Müller-Buschbaum
- Lehrstuhl für Funktionelle Materialien/Fachgebiet Physik weicher Materie, Physik Department, Technische Universität München, James-Franck-Str. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
- Heinz Maier-Leibnitz Zentrum (MLZ), Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
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45
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Zhu H, Wang X, Cui Y, Cai J, Tian F, Wang J, Qiu H. Blooming of Block Copolymer Micelles into Complex Nanostructures on a Surface. Macromolecules 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b00197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hongyan Zhu
- Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China
- University of
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xinyan Wang
- School of Physical Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Yan Cui
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Jiandong Cai
- University of
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- School of Physical Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Feng Tian
- Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China
- Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Zhangjiang Lab, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201204, China
| | - Jie Wang
- Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China
- Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Zhangjiang Lab, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201204, China
| | - Huibin Qiu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
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46
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Doerk GS, Li R, Fukuto M, Rodriguez A, Yager KG. Thickness-Dependent Ordering Kinetics in Cylindrical Block Copolymer/Homopolymer Ternary Blends. Macromolecules 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.8b01773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Alfredo Rodriguez
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, City College of City University of New York, New York, New York 10031, United States
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47
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Dolan JA, Korzeb K, Dehmel R, Gödel KC, Stefik M, Wiesner U, Wilkinson TD, Baumberg JJ, Wilts BD, Steiner U, Gunkel I. Controlling Self-Assembly in Gyroid Terpolymer Films By Solvent Vapor Annealing. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2018; 14:e1802401. [PMID: 30252206 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201802401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The efficacy with which solvent vapor annealing (SVA) can control block copolymer self-assembly has so far been demonstrated primarily for the simplest class of copolymer, the linear diblock copolymer. Adding a third distinct block-thereby creating a triblock terpolymer-not only provides convenient access to complex continuous network morphologies, particularly the gyroid phases, but also opens up a route toward the fabrication of novel nanoscale devices such as optical metamaterials. Such applications, however, require the generation of well-ordered 3D continuous networks, which in turn requires a detailed understanding of the SVA process in terpolymer network morphologies. Here, in situ grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) is employed to study the self-assembly of a gyroid-forming triblock terpolymer during SVA, revealing the effects of several key SVA parameters on the morphology, lateral order, and, in particular, its preservation in the dried film. The robustness of the terpolymer gyroid morphology is a key requirement for successful SVA, allowing the exploration of annealing parameters which may enable the generation of films with long-range order, e.g., for optical metamaterial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A Dolan
- Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, J.J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge, CB3 0HE, UK
- Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1PZ, UK
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, Chemin des Verdiers, CH-1700, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Karolina Korzeb
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, Chemin des Verdiers, CH-1700, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Raphael Dehmel
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, Chemin des Verdiers, CH-1700, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Karl C Gödel
- Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, J.J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge, CB3 0HE, UK
| | - Morgan Stefik
- Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, J.J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge, CB3 0HE, UK
| | - Ulrich Wiesner
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, 541 Main St, Horizon I BLDG, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - Timothy D Wilkinson
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, 214 Bard Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Jeremy J Baumberg
- Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1PZ, UK
| | - Bodo D Wilts
- Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, J.J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge, CB3 0HE, UK
| | - Ullrich Steiner
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, Chemin des Verdiers, CH-1700, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Ilja Gunkel
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, Chemin des Verdiers, CH-1700, Fribourg, Switzerland
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48
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Avalos E, Teramoto T, Komiyama H, Yabu H, Nishiura Y. Transformation of Block Copolymer Nanoparticles from Ellipsoids with Striped Lamellae into Onionlike Spheres and Dynamical Control via Coupled Cahn-Hilliard Equations. ACS OMEGA 2018; 3:1304-1314. [PMID: 31457966 PMCID: PMC6641522 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.7b01557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/26/2017] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Annealing of block copolymers has become a tool of great importance for the reconfiguration of nanoparticles. Here, we present the experimental results of annealing block copolymer nanoparticles and a theoretical model to describe the morphological transformation of ellipsoids with striped lamellae into onionlike spheres. A good correspondence between the experimental findings and predictions of the model was observed. The model based on finding the steepest direction of descent of an appropriate free energy leads to a set of Cahn-Hilliard equations that correctly describe the dynamical transformation of striped ellipsoids into onionlike spheres and reverse onionlike particles, regardless of the nature of the annealing process. This universality makes it possible to describe a variety of experimental conditions involving nanoparticles underlying a heating process. A notable advantage of the proposed approach is that it enables selective control of the interaction between the confined block copolymer and the surrounding medium. This feature endows the model with a great versatility to enable the reproduction of several combined effects of surfactants in diverse conditions, including cases with reverse affinities for the block copolymer segments. A phase diagram to describe a variety of morphologies is presented. We employ the relationship between the temperature-dependent Flory-Huggins parameter and the width of the interfaces to account for changes in temperature due to the heating process. Simulation results correctly show how the transformation evolves as the temperature increases. This increment in temperature corresponds to progressively smaller values of the interfacial width. We anticipate that the proposed approach will facilitate the design and more precise control of experiments involving various kinds of annealing processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Avalos
- Mathematical
Science Group, WPI-Advanced Institute for Materials Research (AIMR), Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8577, Japan
| | - Takashi Teramoto
- Department
of Mathematics, Asahikawa Medical University, 2-1-1-1, Midorigaoka-higashi, Asahikawa 078-8510, Japan
| | - Hideaki Komiyama
- Device/System
Group, WPI-Advanced Institute for Materials Research (AIMR), Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8577, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yabu
- Device/System
Group, WPI-Advanced Institute for Materials Research (AIMR), Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8577, Japan
| | - Yasumasa Nishiura
- Mathematical
Science Group, WPI-Advanced Institute for Materials Research (AIMR), Tohoku University, MathAM-OIL, 2-1-1 Katahira,
Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8577, Japan
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49
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Álvarez-Fernández A, Valdés-Bango F, Losada-Ambrinos R, Martín JI, Vélez M, Alameda JM, García Alonso FJ. Polymer porous thin films obtained by direct spin coating. POLYM INT 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/pi.5519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Fernando Valdés-Bango
- Dpto. Física; Universidad de Oviedo; Oviedo Spain
- CINN (CSIC-Universidad de Oviedo); El Entrego Spain
| | | | - José Ignacio Martín
- Dpto. Física; Universidad de Oviedo; Oviedo Spain
- CINN (CSIC-Universidad de Oviedo); El Entrego Spain
| | - María Vélez
- Dpto. Física; Universidad de Oviedo; Oviedo Spain
- CINN (CSIC-Universidad de Oviedo); El Entrego Spain
| | - José María Alameda
- Dpto. Física; Universidad de Oviedo; Oviedo Spain
- CINN (CSIC-Universidad de Oviedo); El Entrego Spain
| | - Francisco Javier García Alonso
- Dpto. Química Orgánica e Inorgánica; Universidad de Oviedo; Oviedo Spain
- CINN (CSIC-Universidad de Oviedo); El Entrego Spain
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50
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Doerk GS, Yager KG. Rapid Ordering in "Wet Brush" Block Copolymer/Homopolymer Ternary Blends. ACS NANO 2017; 11:12326-12336. [PMID: 29195046 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b06154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The ubiquitous presence of thermodynamically unfavored but kinetically trapped topological defects in nanopatterns formed via self-assembly of block copolymer thin films may prevent their use for many envisioned applications. Here, we demonstrate that lamellae patterns formed by symmetric polystyrene-block-poly(methyl methacrylate) diblock copolymers self-assemble and order extremely rapidly when the diblock copolymers are blended with low molecular weight homopolymers of the constituent blocks. Being in the "wet brush" regime, the homopolymers uniformly distribute within their respective self-assembled microdomains, preventing increases in domain widths. An order-of-magnitude increase in topological grain size in blends over the neat (unblended) diblock copolymer is achieved within minutes of thermal annealing as a result of the significantly higher power law exponent for ordering kinetics in the blends. Moreover, the blends are demonstrated to be capable of rapid and robust domain alignment within micrometer-scale trenches, in contrast to the corresponding neat diblock copolymer. These results can be attributed to the lowering of energy barriers associated with domain boundaries by bringing the system closer to an order-disorder transition through low molecular weight homopolymer blending.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory S Doerk
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Kevin G Yager
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Upton, New York 11973, United States
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