1
|
Abstract
![]()
Diamond is a highly
attractive coating material as it is characterized
by a wide optical transparency window, a high thermal conductivity,
and an extraordinary robustness due to its mechanical properties and
its chemical inertness. In particular, the latter has aroused a great
deal of interest for scanning probe microscopy applications in recent
years. In this study, we present a novel method for the fabrication
of atomic force microscopy (AFM) probes for force spectroscopy using
robust diamond-coated spheres, i.e., colloidal particles. The so-called
colloidal probe technique is commonly used to study interactions of
single colloidal particles, e.g., on biological samples like living
cells, or to measure mechanical properties like the Young’s
modulus. Under physiological measurement conditions, contamination
of the particle often strongly limits the measurement time and often
impedes reusability of the probe. Diamond as a chemically inert material
allows treatment with harsh chemicals without degradation to refurbish
the probe. Apart from that, the large surface area of spherical probes
makes sensitive studies on surface interactions possible. This provides
detailed insight into the interface of diamond with other materials
and/or solvents. To fabricate such probes, silica microspheres were
coated with a nanocrystalline diamond film and attached to tipless
cantilevers. Measurements on soft polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) show
that the manufactured diamond spheres, even though possessing a rough
surface, can be used to determine the Young’s modulus from
a Derjaguin-Muller-Toporov (DMT) fit. By means of force spectroscopy,
they can readily probe force interactions of diamond with different
substrate materials under varying conditions. The influence of the
surface termination of the diamond was investigated concerning the
interaction with flat diamond substrates in air. Additionally, measurements
in solution, using varying salt concentrations, were carried out,
which provide information on double-layer and van-der-Waals forces
at the interface. The developed technique offers detailed insight
into surface chemistry and physics of diamond with other materials
concerning long and short-range force interactions and may provide
a valuable probe for investigations under harsh conditions but also
on biological samples, e.g., living cells, due to the robustness,
chemical inertness, and biocompatibility of diamond.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Knittel
- Fraunhofer IAF , Institute for Applied Solid State Physics , Tullastraße 72 , 79108 Freiburg , Germany
| | - Taro Yoshikawa
- Fraunhofer IAF , Institute for Applied Solid State Physics , Tullastraße 72 , 79108 Freiburg , Germany
| | - Christoph E Nebel
- Fraunhofer IAF , Institute for Applied Solid State Physics , Tullastraße 72 , 79108 Freiburg , Germany
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Yang N, Yu S, Macpherson JV, Einaga Y, Zhao H, Zhao G, Swain GM, Jiang X. Conductive diamond: synthesis, properties, and electrochemical applications. Chem Soc Rev 2019; 48:157-204. [DOI: 10.1039/c7cs00757d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This review summarizes systematically the growth, properties, and electrochemical applications of conductive diamond.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nianjun Yang
- Institute of Materials Engineering
- University of Siegen
- Siegen 57076
- Germany
| | - Siyu Yu
- Institute of Materials Engineering
- University of Siegen
- Siegen 57076
- Germany
| | | | - Yasuaki Einaga
- Department of Chemistry
- Keio University
- Yokohama 223-8522
- Japan
| | - Hongying Zhao
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering
- Tongji University
- Shanghai 200092
- China
| | - Guohua Zhao
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering
- Tongji University
- Shanghai 200092
- China
| | | | - Xin Jiang
- Institute of Materials Engineering
- University of Siegen
- Siegen 57076
- Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhou YL, Zhang PK, Xu CH, Xu JJ, Chen HY. An improvement in scanning electrochemical microscopy based on a plasmon-accelerated electrochemical reaction. Chem Commun (Camb) 2019; 55:11275-11278. [DOI: 10.1039/c9cc04888j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A plasmon-accelerated electrochemical reaction coupled with SECM provides an opportunity to improve the performance of SECM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Lu Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Nanjing University
- Nanjing 210023
- China
| | - Pan-Ke Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Nanjing University
- Nanjing 210023
- China
| | - Cong-Hui Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Nanjing University
- Nanjing 210023
- China
| | - Jing-Juan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Nanjing University
- Nanjing 210023
- China
| | - Hong-Yuan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Nanjing University
- Nanjing 210023
- China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Velmurugan J, Agrawal A, An S, Choudhary E, Szalai VA. Fabrication of Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy-Atomic Force Microscopy Probes to Image Surface Topography and Reactivity at the Nanoscale. Anal Chem 2017; 89:2687-2691. [PMID: 28192901 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b00210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Concurrent mapping of chemical reactivity and morphology of heterogeneous electrocatalysts at the nanoscale allows identification of active areas (protrusions, flat film surface, or cracks) responsible for productive chemistry in these materials. Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) can map surface characteristics, record catalyst activity, and identify chemical products at solid-liquid electrochemical interfaces. It lacks, however, the ability to distinguish topographic features where surface reactivity occurs. Here, we report the design and fabrication of scanning probe tips that combine SECM with atomic force microscopy (AFM) to perform measurements at the nanoscale. Our probes are fabricated by integrating nanoelectrodes with quartz tuning forks (QTFs). Using a calibration standard fabricated in our lab to test our probes, we obtain simultaneous topographic and electrochemical reactivity maps with a lateral resolution of 150 nm.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeyavel Velmurugan
- Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) , Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States.,Maryland NanoCenter, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Amit Agrawal
- Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) , Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States.,Maryland NanoCenter, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Sangmin An
- Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) , Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States.,Maryland NanoCenter, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Eric Choudhary
- Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) , Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Veronika A Szalai
- Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) , Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Polcari D, Dauphin-Ducharme P, Mauzeroll J. Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy: A Comprehensive Review of Experimental Parameters from 1989 to 2015. Chem Rev 2016; 116:13234-13278. [PMID: 27736057 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- David Polcari
- Department
of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec Canada, H3A 0B8
| | - Philippe Dauphin-Ducharme
- Department
of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec Canada, H3A 0B8
| | - Janine Mauzeroll
- Department
of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec Canada, H3A 0B8
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
|
7
|
Adam C, Kanoufi F, Sojic N, Etienne M. Shearforce positioning of nanoprobe electrode arrays for scanning electrochemical microscopy experiments. Electrochim Acta 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2015.04.140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
|
8
|
Eifert A, Mizaikoff B, Kranz C. Advanced fabrication process for combined atomic force-scanning electrochemical microscopy (AFM-SECM) probes. Micron 2015; 68:27-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2014.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Revised: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/22/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
|
9
|
Eifert A, Langenwalter P, Higl J, Lindén M, Nebel CE, Mizaikoff B, Kranz C. Focused ion beam (FIB)-induced changes in the electrochemical behavior of boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes. Electrochim Acta 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2014.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
10
|
Wain AJ, Pollard AJ, Richter C. High-Resolution Electrochemical and Topographical Imaging Using Batch-Fabricated Cantilever Probes. Anal Chem 2014; 86:5143-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ac500946v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Wain
- National Physical Laboratory, Hampton Road, Teddington, TW11 0LW United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J. Pollard
- National Physical Laboratory, Hampton Road, Teddington, TW11 0LW United Kingdom
| | - Christoph Richter
- NanoWorld Services GmbH, Schottkystraße
10, Erlangen, Bavaria 91058, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Kranz C. Recent advancements in nanoelectrodes and nanopipettes used in combined scanning electrochemical microscopy techniques. Analyst 2014; 139:336-52. [DOI: 10.1039/c3an01651j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
|
12
|
Abstract
Patterning with a focused ion beam (FIB) is an extremely versatile fabrication process that can be used to create microscale and nanoscale designs on the surface of practically any solid sample material. Based on the type of ion-sample interaction utilized, FIB-based manufacturing can be both subtractive and additive, even in the same processing step. Indeed, the capability of easily creating three-dimensional patterns and shaping objects by milling and deposition is probably the most recognized feature of ion beam lithography (IBL) and micromachining. However, there exist several other techniques, such as ion implantation- and ion damage-based patterning and surface functionalization types of processes that have emerged as valuable additions to the nanofabrication toolkit and that are less widely known. While fabrication throughput, in general, is arguably low due to the serial nature of the direct-writing process, speed is not necessarily a problem in these IBL applications that work with small ion doses. Here we provide a comprehensive review of ion beam lithography in general and a practical guide to the individual IBL techniques developed to date. Special attention is given to applications in nanofabrication.
Collapse
|
13
|
Etienne M, Moulin JP, Gourhand S. Accurate control of the electrode shape for high resolution shearforce regulated SECM. Electrochim Acta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.03.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
14
|
Pobelov IV, Mohos M, Yoshida K, Kolivoska V, Avdic A, Lugstein A, Bertagnolli E, Leonhardt K, Denuault G, Gollas B, Wandlowski T. Electrochemical current-sensing atomic force microscopy in conductive solutions. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2013; 24:115501. [PMID: 23448801 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/24/11/115501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Insulated atomic force microscopy probes carrying gold conductive tips were fabricated and employed as bifunctional force and current sensors in electrolyte solutions under electrochemical potential control. The application of the probes for current-sensing imaging, force and current-distance spectroscopy as well as scanning electrochemical microscopy experiments was demonstrated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ilya V Pobelov
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Leonhardt K, Avdic A, Lugstein A, Pobelov I, Wandlowski T, Gollas B, Denuault G. Scanning electrochemical microscopy: Diffusion controlled approach curves for conical AFM-SECM tips. Electrochem commun 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2012.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
|
16
|
Atomic force microscopy probes with integrated boron doped diamond electrodes: Fabrication and application. Electrochem commun 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2012.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
|
17
|
Silva E, Bastos A, Neto M, Silva R, Zheludkevich M, Ferreira M, Oliveira F. Boron doped nanocrystalline diamond microelectrodes for the detection of Zn2+ and dissolved O2. Electrochim Acta 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.05.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
|
18
|
Batchelor-McAuley C, Dickinson EJF, Rees NV, Toghill KE, Compton RG. New Electrochemical Methods. Anal Chem 2011; 84:669-84. [DOI: 10.1021/ac2026767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Batchelor-McAuley
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Edmund J. F. Dickinson
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Neil V. Rees
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Kathryn E. Toghill
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Richard G. Compton
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Smirnov W, Kriele A, Hoffmann R, Sillero E, Hees J, Williams OA, Yang N, Kranz C, Nebel CE. Diamond-modified AFM probes: from diamond nanowires to atomic force microscopy-integrated boron-doped diamond electrodes. Anal Chem 2011; 83:4936-41. [PMID: 21534601 DOI: 10.1021/ac200659e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In atomic force microscopy (AFM), sharp and wear-resistant tips are a critical issue. Regarding scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), electrodes are required to be mechanically and chemically stable. Diamond is the perfect candidate for both AFM probes as well as for electrode materials if doped, due to diamond's unrivaled mechanical, chemical, and electrochemical properties. In this study, standard AFM tips were overgrown with typically 300 nm thick nanocrystalline diamond (NCD) layers and modified to obtain ultra sharp diamond nanowire-based AFM probes and probes that were used for combined AFM-SECM measurements based on integrated boron-doped conductive diamond electrodes. Analysis of the resonance properties of the diamond overgrown AFM cantilevers showed increasing resonance frequencies with increasing diamond coating thicknesses (i.e., from 160 to 260 kHz). The measured data were compared to performed simulations and show excellent correlation. A strong enhancement of the quality factor upon overgrowth was also observed (120 to 710). AFM tips with integrated diamond nanowires are shown to have apex radii as small as 5 nm and where fabricated by selectively etching diamond in a plasma etching process using self-organized metal nanomasks. These scanning tips showed superior imaging performance as compared to standard Si-tips or commercially available diamond-coated tips. The high imaging resolution and low tip wear are demonstrated using tapping and contact mode AFM measurements by imaging ultra hard substrates and DNA. Furthermore, AFM probes were coated with conductive boron-doped and insulating diamond layers to achieve bifunctional AFM-SECM probes. For this, focused ion beam (FIB) technology was used to expose the boron-doped diamond as a recessed electrode near the apex of the scanning tip. Such a modified probe was used to perform proof-of-concept AFM-SECM measurements. The results show that high-quality diamond probes can be fabricated, which are suitable for probing, manipulating, sculpting, and sensing at single digit nanoscale.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Waldemar Smirnov
- Fraunhofer Institut für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Tullastrasse 72, Freiburg 79108, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Mirkin MV, Nogala W, Velmurugan J, Wang Y. Scanning electrochemical microscopy in the 21st century. Update 1: five years after. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2011; 13:21196-212. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cp22376c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
|