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Liang J, Xiao K, Wang X, Hou T, Zeng C, Gao X, Wang B, Zhong C. Revisiting Solar Energy Flow in Nanomaterial-Microorganism Hybrid Systems. Chem Rev 2024. [PMID: 38900019 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Nanomaterial-microorganism hybrid systems (NMHSs), integrating semiconductor nanomaterials with microorganisms, present a promising platform for broadband solar energy harvesting, high-efficiency carbon reduction, and sustainable chemical production. While studies underscore its potential in diverse solar-to-chemical energy conversions, prevailing NMHSs grapple with suboptimal energy conversion efficiency. Such limitations stem predominantly from an insufficient systematic exploration of the mechanisms dictating solar energy flow. This review provides a systematic overview of the notable advancements in this nascent field, with a particular focus on the discussion of three pivotal steps of energy flow: solar energy capture, cross-membrane energy transport, and energy conversion into chemicals. While key challenges faced in each stage are independently identified and discussed, viable solutions are correspondingly postulated. In view of the interplay of the three steps in affecting the overall efficiency of solar-to-chemical energy conversion, subsequent discussions thus take an integrative and systematic viewpoint to comprehend, analyze and improve the solar energy flow in the current NMHSs of different configurations, and highlighting the contemporary techniques that can be employed to investigate various aspects of energy flow within NMHSs. Finally, a concluding section summarizes opportunities for future research, providing a roadmap for the continued development and optimization of NMHSs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Liang
- Key Laboratory of Quantitative Synthetic Biology, Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Kemeng Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Quantitative Synthetic Biology, Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Xinyu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Quantitative Synthetic Biology, Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Tianfeng Hou
- Key Laboratory of Quantitative Synthetic Biology, Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Cuiping Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Quantitative Synthetic Biology, Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Xiang Gao
- Key Laboratory of Quantitative Synthetic Biology, Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Bo Wang
- Key Laboratory of Quantitative Synthetic Biology, Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Chao Zhong
- Key Laboratory of Quantitative Synthetic Biology, Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
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2
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Sławski J, Maciejewski J, Szukiewicz R, Gieczewska K, Grzyb J. Quantum Dots Assembled with Photosynthetic Antennae on a Carbon Nanotube Platform: A Nanohybrid for the Enhancement of Light Energy Harvesting. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:41991-42003. [PMID: 37969970 PMCID: PMC10633852 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c07673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
The construction of artificial systems for solar energy harvesting is still a challenge. There needs to be a light-harvesting antenna with a broad absorption spectrum and then the possibility to transfer harvested energy to the reaction center, converting photons into a storable form of energy. Bioinspired and bioderivative elements may help in achieving this aim. Here, we present an option for light harvesting: a nanobiohybrid of colloidal, semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) and natural photosynthetic antennae assembled on the surface of a carbon nanotube. For that, we used QDs of cadmium telluride and cyanobacterial phycobilisome rods (PBSr) or light-harvesting complex II (LHCII) of higher plants. For this nanobiohybrid, we confirmed composition and organization using infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and high-resolution confocal microscopy. Then, we proved that within such an assembly, there is a resonance energy transfer from QD to PBSr or LHCII. When such a nanobiohybrid was further combined with thylakoids, the energy was transferred to photosynthetic reaction centers and efficiently powered the photosystem I reaction center. The presented construct is proof of a general concept, combining interacting elements on a platform of a nanotube, allowing further variation within assembled elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Sławski
- Department
of Biophysics, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, F. Joliot-Curie 14a, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Jan Maciejewski
- Department
of Biophysics, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, F. Joliot-Curie 14a, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Rafał Szukiewicz
- Faculty
of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Wrocław, Maxa Borna
9, 50-204 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Gieczewska
- Department
of Plant Anatomy and Cytology, Institute of Experimental Plant Biology
and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University
of Warsaw, I. Miecznikowa 1, 02-096 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Grzyb
- Department
of Biophysics, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, F. Joliot-Curie 14a, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland
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3
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Majikes JM, Liddle JA. Synthesizing the biochemical and semiconductor worlds: the future of nucleic acid nanotechnology. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:15586-15595. [PMID: 36268635 PMCID: PMC10949957 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr04040a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Since its inception nearly 40 years ago [Kallenbach, et al., Nature, 1983, 305, 829; N. C. Seeman, J. Theoretical Biology, 1982, 99, 237], Nucleic Acid Nanotechnology (NAN) has matured and is beginning to find commercial applications. For the last 20 years, it has been suggested that NAN might be an effective replacement for parts of the semiconductor lithography or protein engineering workflows. However, in that time, these incumbent technologies have made significant advances, and our understanding of NAN's strengths and weaknesses has progressed, suggesting that the greatest opportunities in fact lie elsewhere. Given the commitment of resources necessary to bring new technologies to the market and the desire to use those resources as wisely as possible, we conduct a critical examination of where NAN may benefit from, and provide benefit to, adjacent technologies and compete least with market incumbents. While the accuracy of our conclusions may be limited by our ability to extrapolate from the current state of NAN to its future commercial success, we conclude that the next promising direction is to create a bridge between biology and semiconductor technology. We also hope to stimulate a robust conversation around this technology's capabilities with the goal of building consensus on those research and development efforts that would advance NAN to the greatest effect in real-world applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob M Majikes
- Physical Measurement Laboratory, National Institute Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau drive, Gaithersburg, MD, 20878, USA.
| | - J Alexander Liddle
- Physical Measurement Laboratory, National Institute Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau drive, Gaithersburg, MD, 20878, USA.
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4
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Wang Z, Hu Y, Zhang S, Sun Y. Artificial photosynthesis systems for solar energy conversion and storage: platforms and their realities. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:6704-6737. [PMID: 35815740 DOI: 10.1039/d1cs01008e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In natural photosynthesis, photosynthetic organisms such as green plants realize efficient solar energy conversion and storage by integrating photosynthetic components on the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts. Inspired by natural photosynthesis, researchers have developed many artificial photosynthesis systems (APS's) that integrate various photocatalysts and biocatalysts to convert and store solar energy in the fields of resource, environment, food, and energy. To improve the system efficiency and reduce the operation cost, reaction platforms are introduced in APS's since they allow for great stability and continuous processing. A systematic understanding of how a reaction platform affects the performance of artificial photosynthesis is conducive for designing an APS with superb solar energy utilization. In this review, we discuss the recent APS's researches, especially those confined on/in platforms. The importance of different platforms and their influences on APS's performance are emphasized. Generally, confined platforms can enhance the stability and repeatability of both photocatalysts and biocatalysts in APS's as well as improve the photosynthetic performance due to the proximity effect. For functional platforms that can participate in the artificial photosynthesis reactions as active parts, a high integration of APS's components on/in these platforms can lead to efficient electron transfer, enhanced light-harvesting, or synergistic catalysis, resulting in superior photosynthesis performance. Therefore, the integration of APS's components is beneficial for the transfer of substrates and photoexcited electrons in artificial photosynthesis. We finally summarize the current challenges of APS's development and further efforts on the improvement of APS's.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenfu Wang
- Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering and Frontiers Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300350, China.
| | - Yang Hu
- Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering and Frontiers Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300350, China.
| | - Songping Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Yan Sun
- Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering and Frontiers Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300350, China.
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5
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Teodor AH, Thal LB, Vijayakumar S, Chan M, Little G, Bruce BD. Photosystem I integrated into mesoporous microspheres has enhanced stability and photoactivity in biohybrid solar cells. Mater Today Bio 2021; 11:100122. [PMID: 34401709 PMCID: PMC8350420 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2021.100122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Isolated proteins, especially membrane proteins, are susceptible to aggregation and activity loss after purification. For therapeutics and biosensors usage, protein stability and longevity are especially important. It has been demonstrated that photosystem I (PSI) can be successfully integrated into biohybrid electronic devices to take advantage of its strong light-driven reducing potential (-1.2V vs. the Standard Hydrogen Electrode). Most devices utilize PSI isolated in a nanosize detergent micelle, which is difficult to visualize, quantitate, and manipulate. Isolated PSI is also susceptible to aggregation and/or loss of activity, especially after freeze/thaw cycles. CaCO3 microspheres (CCMs) have been shown to be a robust method of protein encapsulation for industrial and pharmaceutical applications, increasing the stability and activity of the encapsulated protein. However, CCMs have not been utilized with any membrane protein(s) to date. Herein, we examine the encapsulation of detergent-solubilized PSI in CCMs yielding uniform, monodisperse, mesoporous microspheres. This study reports both the first encapsulation of a membrane protein and also the largest protein to date stabilized by CCMs. These microspheres retain their spectral properties and lumenal surface exposure and are active when integrated into hybrid biophotovoltaic devices. CCMs may be a robust yet simple solution for long-term storage of large membrane proteins, showing success for very large, multisubunit complexes like PSI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra H. Teodor
- Program in Genome Sciences and Technology, Oak Ridge National Laboratory and University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA
| | - Lucas B. Thal
- Department of Biochemistry & Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA
| | - Shinduri Vijayakumar
- Department of Biochemistry & Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA
| | - Madison Chan
- Department of Engineering Management, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga, USA
| | - Gabriela Little
- Department of Biochemistry & Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA
| | - Barry D. Bruce
- Program in Genome Sciences and Technology, Oak Ridge National Laboratory and University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA
- Department of Biochemistry & Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA
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6
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Abstract
The efficient mechanism of light capture by photosynthetic proteins allows for energy transfer and conversion to electrochemical energy at very low light intensities. In this work, reaction center (RC) proteins, or a core complex consisting of the RC encircled by light harvesting (LH1) proteins (RC-LH1) from photosynthetic bacteria, were immobilized on an insulating layer of an ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) to build bio-photodetectors. The orientation of the RC proteins was controlled via application of a hybrid linker made of 10-carboxydecylphosphonic acid and cytochrome c that anchored the RCs to their electron donor side. Bio-phototransistors consisting of either the core RC or the RC-LH1 core complex were tested under white and monochromic light. The difference between the dark and light currents at different wavelengths are well-matched with the absorption spectrum of the photosynthetic proteins. The results show potential for the use of photosynthetic proteins in photodetectors.
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7
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Tong J, Zhang P, Zhang L, Zhang D, Beratan DN, Song H, Wang Y, Li T. A Robust Bioderived Wavelength-Specific Photosensor Based on BLUF Proteins. SENSORS AND ACTUATORS. B, CHEMICAL 2020; 310:127838. [PMID: 32296265 PMCID: PMC7157799 DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2020.127838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Photosensitive proteins are naturally evolved photosensors that often respond to light signals of specific wavelengths. However, their poor stability under ambient conditions hinders their applications in non-biological settings. In this proof-of-principle study, we grafted the blue light using flavin (BLUF) protein reconstructed with flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) or roseoflavin (RoF) onto pristine graphene, and achieved selective sensitivity at 450 nm or 500 nm, respectively. We improved the thermal and operational stability substantially via structure-guided cross-linking, achieving 6-month stability under ambient condition and normal operation at temperatures up to 200 °C. Furthermore, the device exhibited rare negative photoconductivity behavior. The origins of this negative photoconductivity behavior were elucidated via a combination of experimental and theoretical analysis. In the photoelectric conversion studies, holes from photoexcited flavin migrated to graphene and recombined with electrons. The device allows facile modulation and detection of charge transfer, and provides a versatile platform for future studies of photoinduced charge transfer in biosensors as well as the development of stable wavelength-selective biophotosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Tong
- Science and Technology on Microsytem Laboratory, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS), Beijing 100049, China
| | - Peng Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Lei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, National Center for Protein Sciences (Beijing), Beijing Institute of Lifeomics, Beijing 102206, China
- National engineering research center for protein drugs (NERCPD), Beijing 102206, China
| | - Dongwei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, National Center for Protein Sciences (Beijing), Beijing Institute of Lifeomics, Beijing 102206, China
- National engineering research center for protein drugs (NERCPD), Beijing 102206, China
| | - David N. Beratan
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
- Department of Physics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710, United States
| | - Haifeng Song
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, National Center for Protein Sciences (Beijing), Beijing Institute of Lifeomics, Beijing 102206, China
- National engineering research center for protein drugs (NERCPD), Beijing 102206, China
| | - Yi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, National Center for Protein Sciences (Beijing), Beijing Institute of Lifeomics, Beijing 102206, China
- National engineering research center for protein drugs (NERCPD), Beijing 102206, China
| | - Tie Li
- Science and Technology on Microsytem Laboratory, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China
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8
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Heifler O, Carmeli C, Carmeli I. Chemical Tagging of Membrane Proteins Enables Oriented Binding on Solid Surfaces. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2020; 36:4556-4562. [PMID: 32239960 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b02969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In biological systems, membrane proteins play major roles in energy conversion, transport, sensing, and signal transduction. Of special interest are the photosynthetic reaction centers involved in the initial process of light energy conversion to electrical and chemical energies. The oriented binding of membrane proteins to solid surfaces is important for biotechnological applications. In some cases, novel properties are generated as a result of the interaction between proteins and solid surfaces. We developed a novel approach for the oriented tagging of membrane proteins. In this unique process, bifunctional molecules are used to chemically tag the exposed surfaces of membrane proteins at selected sides of membrane vesicles. The isolated tagged membrane proteins were self-assembled on solid surfaces, leading to the fabrication of dens-oriented layers on metal and glass surfaces, as seen from the atomic force microscopy (AFM) images. In this work, we used chromatophores and membrane vesicles containing protein chlorophyll complexes for the isolation of the bacterial reaction center and photosystem I, from photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively. The oriented layers, which were fabricated on metal surfaces, were functional and generated light-induced photovoltage that was measured by the Kalvin probe apparatus. The polarity of the photovoltage depended on the orientation of proteins in the layers. Other membrane proteins can be tagged by the same method. However, we preferred the use of reaction centers because their orientation can be easily detected by the polarity of their photovoltages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omri Heifler
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologyTel Aviv UniversityTel Aviv6997801Israel
| | - Chanoch Carmeli
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologyTel Aviv UniversityTel Aviv6997801Israel
| | - Itai Carmeli
- Institute for Nano Technology, Bar Ilan University, Ranat Gan 5290002, Israel
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9
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Liu J, Mantell J, Jones MR. Minding the Gap between Plant and Bacterial Photosynthesis within a Self-Assembling Biohybrid Photosystem. ACS NANO 2020; 14:4536-4549. [PMID: 32227861 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c00058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Many strategies for meeting mankind's future energy demands through the exploitation of plentiful solar energy have been influenced by the efficient and sustainable processes of natural photosynthesis. A limitation affecting solar energy conversion based on photosynthetic proteins is the selective spectral coverage that is the consequence of their particular natural pigmentation. Here we demonstrate the bottom-up formation of semisynthetic, polychromatic photosystems in mixtures of the chlorophyll-based LHCII major light harvesting complex from the oxygenic green plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the bacteriochlorophyll-based photochemical reaction center (RC) from the anoxygenic purple bacterium Rhodobacter sphaeroides and synthetic quantum dots (QDs). Polyhistidine tag adaptation of LHCII and the RC enabled predictable self-assembly of LHCII/RC/QD nanoconjugates, the thermodynamics of which could be accurately modeled and parametrized. The tricomponent biohybrid photosystems displayed enhanced solar energy conversion via either direct chlorophyll-to-bacteriochlorophyll energy transfer or an indirect pathway enabled by the QD, with an overall energy transfer efficiency comparable to that seen in natural photosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juntai Liu
- School of Biochemistry, Biomedical Sciences Building, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, United Kingdom
| | - Judith Mantell
- School of Biochemistry, Biomedical Sciences Building, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, United Kingdom
- Wolfson Bioimaging Facility, Biomedical Sciences Building, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, United Kingdom
| | - Michael R Jones
- School of Biochemistry, Biomedical Sciences Building, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, United Kingdom
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10
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Ortiz-Torres MI, Fernández-Niño M, Cruz JC, Capasso A, Matteocci F, Patiño EJ, Hernández Y, González Barrios AF. Rational Design of Photo-Electrochemical Hybrid Devices Based on Graphene and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Light-Harvesting Proteins. Sci Rep 2020; 10:3376. [PMID: 32099058 PMCID: PMC7042359 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-60408-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have been highlighted as the promising alternative to generate clean energy based on low pay-back time materials. These devices have been designed to mimic solar energy conversion processes from photosynthetic organisms (the most efficient energy transduction phenomenon observed in nature) with the aid of low-cost materials. Recently, light-harvesting complexes (LHC) have been proposed as potential dyes in DSSCs based on their higher light-absorption efficiencies as compared to synthetic dyes. In this work, photo-electrochemical hybrid devices were rationally designed by adding for the first time Leu and Lys tags to heterologously expressed light-harvesting proteins from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, thus allowing their proper orientation and immobilization on graphene electrodes. The light-harvesting complex 4 from C. reinhardtii (LHC4) was initially expressed in Escherichia coli, purified via affinity chromatography and subsequently immobilized on plasma-treated thin-film graphene electrodes. A photocurrent density of 40.30 ± 9.26 μA/cm2 was measured on devices using liquid electrolytes supplemented with a phosphonated viologen to facilitate charge transfer. Our results suggest that a new family of graphene-based thin-film photovoltaic devices can be manufactured from rationally tagged LHC proteins and opens the possibility to further explore fundamental processes of energy transfer for biological components interfaced with synthetic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martha I Ortiz-Torres
- Grupo de Diseño de Productos y Procesos (GDPP), Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia
- Nanomaterials Laboratory, Physics Department, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia
| | - Miguel Fernández-Niño
- Grupo de Diseño de Productos y Procesos (GDPP), Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia
| | - Juan C Cruz
- GINIB Research Group, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia
| | - Andrea Capasso
- International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, 4715-330, Braga, Portugal
| | - Fabio Matteocci
- C.H.O.S.E - Centre for Hybrid and Organic Solar Energy, Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via del politecnico 1, Rome, 00133, Italy
| | - Edgar J Patiño
- Superconductivity and Nanodevices Laboratory, Physics Department, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia
| | - Yenny Hernández
- Nanomaterials Laboratory, Physics Department, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia.
| | - Andrés Fernando González Barrios
- Grupo de Diseño de Productos y Procesos (GDPP), Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia.
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11
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Suresh L, Vaghasiya JV, Nandakumar DK, Wu T, Jones MR, Tan SC. High-Performance UV Enhancer Molecules Coupled with Photosynthetic Proteins for Ultra-Low-Intensity UV Detection. Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chempr.2019.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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12
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Jun D, Beatty JT, Bizzotto D. Highly Sensitive Method to Isolate Photocurrent Signals from Large Background Redox Currents on Protein‐Modified Electrodes. ChemElectroChem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201900249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Jun
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversity of British Columbia Vancouver BC V6T 1Z3 Canada
| | - J. Thomas Beatty
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversity of British Columbia Vancouver BC V6T 1Z3 Canada
| | - Dan Bizzotto
- Department of Chemistry Advanced Materials and Process Engineering LaboratoryUniversity of British Columbia Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
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13
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Exploiting new ways for a more efficient orientation and wiring of PSI to electrodes: A fullerene C70 approach. Electrochim Acta 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2019.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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14
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Liu J, Friebe V, Swainsbury DJK, Crouch LI, Szabo DA, Frese RN, Jones MR. Engineered photoproteins that give rise to photosynthetically-incompetent bacteria are effective as photovoltaic materials for biohybrid photoelectrochemical cells. Faraday Discuss 2018; 207:307-327. [PMID: 29364305 PMCID: PMC5903125 DOI: 10.1039/c7fd00190h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Reaction centre/light harvesting proteins such as the RCLH1X complex from Rhodobacter sphaeroides carry out highly quantum-efficient conversion of solar energy through ultrafast energy transfer and charge separation, and these pigment-proteins have been incorporated into biohybrid photoelectrochemical cells for a variety of applications. In this work we demonstrate that, despite not being able to support normal photosynthetic growth of Rhodobacter sphaeroides, an engineered variant of this RCLH1X complex lacking the PufX protein and with an enlarged light harvesting antenna is unimpaired in its capacity for photocurrent generation in two types of bio-photoelectrochemical cells. Removal of PufX also did not impair the ability of the RCLH1 complex to act as an acceptor of energy from synthetic light harvesting quantum dots. Unexpectedly, the removal of PufX led to a marked improvement in the overall stability of the RCLH1 complex under heat stress. We conclude that PufX-deficient RCLH1 complexes are fully functional in solar energy conversion in a device setting and that their enhanced structural stability could make them a preferred choice over their native PufX-containing counterpart. Our findings on the competence of RCLH1 complexes for light energy conversion in vitro are discussed with reference to the reason why these PufX-deficient proteins are not capable of light energy conversion in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juntai Liu
- School of Biochemistry , University of Bristol , Medical Sciences Building, University Walk , Bristol BS8 1TD , UK .
| | - Vincent M. Friebe
- Department of Physics and Astronomy , LaserLaB Amsterdam , VU University Amsterdam , De Boelelaan 1081, 1081 HV , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - David J. K. Swainsbury
- School of Biochemistry , University of Bristol , Medical Sciences Building, University Walk , Bristol BS8 1TD , UK .
| | - Lucy I. Crouch
- School of Biochemistry , University of Bristol , Medical Sciences Building, University Walk , Bristol BS8 1TD , UK .
| | - David A. Szabo
- School of Biochemistry , University of Bristol , Medical Sciences Building, University Walk , Bristol BS8 1TD , UK .
| | - Raoul N. Frese
- Department of Physics and Astronomy , LaserLaB Amsterdam , VU University Amsterdam , De Boelelaan 1081, 1081 HV , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Michael R. Jones
- School of Biochemistry , University of Bristol , Medical Sciences Building, University Walk , Bristol BS8 1TD , UK .
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15
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Cai P, Jia Y, Feng X, Li J, Li J. Assembly of CdTe Quantum Dots and Photosystem II Multilayer Films with Enhanced Photocurrent. CHINESE J CHEM 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/cjoc.201600840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peng Cai
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecule Sciences, CAS Key Lab of Colloid; Interface and Chemical Thermodynamics, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 China
- Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Qingdao Shandong 266101 China
| | - Yi Jia
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecule Sciences, CAS Key Lab of Colloid; Interface and Chemical Thermodynamics, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 China
| | - Xiyun Feng
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecule Sciences, CAS Key Lab of Colloid; Interface and Chemical Thermodynamics, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 China
| | - Jiao Li
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecule Sciences, CAS Key Lab of Colloid; Interface and Chemical Thermodynamics, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 China
| | - Junbai Li
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecule Sciences, CAS Key Lab of Colloid; Interface and Chemical Thermodynamics, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 China
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16
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Shin DS, Tokuda EY, Leight JL, Miksch CE, Brown TE, Anseth KS. Synthesis of microgel sensors for spatial and temporal monitoring of protease activity. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2017; 4:378-387. [PMID: 29527570 PMCID: PMC5842818 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.7b00017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Proteases are involved in almost every important cellular activity, from embryonic morphogenesis to apoptosis. To study protease activity in situ, hydrogels provide a synthetic mimic of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and have utility as a platform to study activity, such as those related to cell migration, in three-dimensions. While 3-dimensional visualization of protease activity could prove quite useful to elucidate the proteolytic interaction at the interface between cells and their surrounding environment, there has been no versatile tool to visualize local proteolytic activity in real time. Here, micron-sized gels were synthesized by inverse suspension polymerization using thiolene photo-click chemistry. The size distribution was selected to avoid cellular uptake and to lower cytotoxicity, while simultaneously allowing the integration of peptide-based FRET sensors of local cell activity. Proteolytic activity of collagenase was detected within an hour via changes in fluorescence of embedded microgels; incubation of microgel sensors with A375 melanoma cells showed upregulated MMP activity in the presence of soluble fibronectins in media. The microgel sensors were readily incorporated into both gelatin and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels and used to successfully detect spatiotemporal proteolytic activity of A375 melanoma cells. Finally, a tumor model was constructed from a hydrogel microwell array that was used to aggregate A375 melanoma cells, and local variations in proteolytic activity were monitored as a function of distance from the cell aggregate center.
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Affiliation(s)
- Della S. Shin
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado at Boulder, 3415 Colorado Avenue, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Emi Y. Tokuda
- Suite 100, Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, 1100 Olive Way, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Jennifer L. Leight
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ohio State University, 1080 Carmack Rd., Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Connor E. Miksch
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado at Boulder, 3415 Colorado Avenue, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Tobin E. Brown
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado at Boulder, 3415 Colorado Avenue, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Kristi S. Anseth
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado at Boulder, 3415 Colorado Avenue, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado at Boulder, 3415 Colorado Avenue, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
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17
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Li H, Tu W, Zhou Y, Zou Z. Z-Scheme Photocatalytic Systems for Promoting Photocatalytic Performance: Recent Progress and Future Challenges. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2016; 3:1500389. [PMID: 27980982 PMCID: PMC5102663 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201500389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 270] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Revised: 02/13/2016] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Semiconductor photocatalysts have attracted increased attention due to their great potential for solving energy and environmental problems. The formation of Z-scheme photocatalytic systems that mimic natural photosynthesis is a promising strategy to improve photocatalytic activity that is superior to single component photocatalysts. The connection between photosystem I (PS I) and photosystem II (PS II) are crucial for constructing efficient Z-scheme photocatalytic systems using two photocatalysts (PS I and PS II). The present review concisely summarizes and highlights recent state-of-the-art accomplishments of Z-scheme photocatalytic systems with diverse connection modes, including i) with shuttle redox mediators, ii) without electron mediators, and iii) with solid-state electron mediators, which effectively increase visible-light absorption, promote the separation and transportation of photoinduced charge carriers, and thus enhance the photocatalytic efficiency. The challenges and prospects for future development of Z-scheme photocatalytic systems are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haijin Li
- Key Laboratory of Modern Acoustics (MOE)Institute of Acoustics, Department of PhysicsNanjing UniversityNanjing210093JiangsuP. R. China
- School of Mathematics and PhysicsInstitute of Optoelectronic Information Materials and TechnologyAnhui University of TechnologyMa'anshan243002AnhuiP. R. China
- National Laboratory of Solid State MicrostructuresCollaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures School of PhysicsJiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano TechnologyNanjing University22 Hankou RoadNanjingJiangsu210093P. R. China
| | - Wenguang Tu
- Key Laboratory of Modern Acoustics (MOE)Institute of Acoustics, Department of PhysicsNanjing UniversityNanjing210093JiangsuP. R. China
- National Laboratory of Solid State MicrostructuresCollaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures School of PhysicsJiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano TechnologyNanjing University22 Hankou RoadNanjingJiangsu210093P. R. China
| | - Yong Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Modern Acoustics (MOE)Institute of Acoustics, Department of PhysicsNanjing UniversityNanjing210093JiangsuP. R. China
- National Laboratory of Solid State MicrostructuresCollaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures School of PhysicsJiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano TechnologyNanjing University22 Hankou RoadNanjingJiangsu210093P. R. China
| | - Zhigang Zou
- National Laboratory of Solid State MicrostructuresCollaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures School of PhysicsJiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano TechnologyNanjing University22 Hankou RoadNanjingJiangsu210093P. R. China
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18
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Kim Y, Lee JH, Ha H, Im SW, Nam KT. Material science lesson from the biological photosystem. NANO CONVERGENCE 2016; 3:19. [PMID: 28191429 PMCID: PMC5271162 DOI: 10.1186/s40580-016-0079-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/09/2016] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Inspired by photosynthesis, artificial systems for a sustainable energy supply are being designed. Each sequential energy conversion process from light to biomass in natural photosynthesis is a valuable model for an energy collection, transport and conversion system. Notwithstanding the numerous lessons of nature that provide inspiration for new developments, the features of natural photosynthesis need to be reengineered to meet man's demands. This review describes recent strategies toward adapting key lessons from natural photosynthesis to artificial systems. We focus on the underlying material science in photosynthesis that combines photosystems as pivotal functional materials and a range of materials into an integrated system. Finally, a perspective on the future development of photosynthesis mimetic energy systems is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Younghye Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, 151-744 Seoul, Korea
| | - Jun Ho Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, 151-744 Seoul, Korea
| | - Heonjin Ha
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, 151-744 Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang Won Im
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, 151-744 Seoul, Korea
| | - Ki Tae Nam
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, 151-744 Seoul, Korea
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19
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Simmerman RF, Zhu T, Baker DR, Wang L, Mishra SR, Lundgren CA, Bruce BD. Engineering Photosystem I Complexes with Metal Oxide Binding Peptides for Bioelectronic Applications. Bioconjug Chem 2015; 26:2097-105. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.5b00374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Richard F. Simmerman
- Department
of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee Knoxville, Knoxville, Tennessee 37919, United States
| | - Tuo Zhu
- Department
of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee Knoxville, Knoxville, Tennessee 37919, United States
| | - David R. Baker
- Sensors
and Electron Devices Directorate, U.S. Army Research Laboratory, Adelphi, Maryland 20783, United States
| | - Lijia Wang
- Department
of Physics, University of Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee 38152, United States
| | - Sanjay R. Mishra
- Department
of Physics, University of Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee 38152, United States
| | - Cynthia A. Lundgren
- Sensors
and Electron Devices Directorate, U.S. Army Research Laboratory, Adelphi, Maryland 20783, United States
| | - Barry D. Bruce
- Department
of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee Knoxville, Knoxville, Tennessee 37919, United States
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20
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Yaghoubi H, Lafalce E, Jun D, Jiang X, Beatty JT, Takshi A. Large photocurrent response and external quantum efficiency in biophotoelectrochemical cells incorporating reaction center plus light harvesting complexes. Biomacromolecules 2015; 16:1112-8. [PMID: 25798701 DOI: 10.1021/bm501772x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial photosynthetic reaction centers (RCs) are promising materials for solar energy harvesting, due to their high ratio of photogenerated electrons to absorbed photons and long recombination time of generated charges. In this work, photoactive electrodes were prepared from a bacterial RC-light-harvesting 1 (LH1) core complex, where the RC is encircled by the LH1 antenna, to increase light capture. A simple immobilization method was used to prepare RC-LH1 photoactive layer. Herein, we demonstrate that the combination of pretreatment of the RC-LH1 protein complexes with quinone and the immobilization method results in biophotoelectrochemical cells with a large peak transient photocurrent density and photocurrent response of 7.1 and 3.5 μA cm(-2), respectively. The current study with monochromatic excitation showed maximum external quantum efficiency (EQE) and photocurrent density of 0.21% and 2 μA cm(-2), respectively, with illumination power of ∼6 mW cm(-2) at ∼875 nm, under ambient conditions. This work provides new directions to higher performance biophotoelectrochemical cells as well as possibly other applications of this broadly functional photoactive material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houman Yaghoubi
- †Bio/Organic Electronics Lab, Department of Electrical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
| | - Evan Lafalce
- ‡Soft Semiconducting Materials and Devices Lab, Department of Physics, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
| | - Daniel Jun
- §Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Xiaomei Jiang
- ‡Soft Semiconducting Materials and Devices Lab, Department of Physics, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
| | - J Thomas Beatty
- §Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Arash Takshi
- †Bio/Organic Electronics Lab, Department of Electrical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
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21
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Zhang HD, Xu RX, Zheng X, Yan Y. Nonperturbative spin–boson and spin–spin dynamics and nonlinear Fano interferences: A unified dissipaton theory based study. J Chem Phys 2015; 142:024112. [DOI: 10.1063/1.4905494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hou-Dao Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Rui-Xue Xu
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Xiao Zheng
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - YiJing Yan
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
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22
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Wang W, Wang Z, Zhu Q, Han G, Ding C, Chen J, Shen JR, Li C. Direct electron transfer from photosystem II to hematite in a hybrid photoelectrochemical cell. Chem Commun (Camb) 2015; 51:16952-5. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cc06900a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A hybrid photoanode integrating photosystem II with a hematite film is constructed for photoelectrochemical water oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wangyin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy
- Dalian 116023
| | - Zhiliang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy
- Dalian 116023
| | - Qingjun Zhu
- Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100049
- China
- Photosynthesis Research Center
- Key Laboratory of Photobiology
| | - Guangye Han
- Photosynthesis Research Center
- Key Laboratory of Photobiology
- Institute of Botany
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100093
| | - Chunmei Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy
- Dalian 116023
| | - Jun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy
- Dalian 116023
| | - Jian-Ren Shen
- Photosynthesis Research Center
- Key Laboratory of Photobiology
- Institute of Botany
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing 100093
| | - Can Li
- State Key Laboratory of Catalysis
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy
- Dalian 116023
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23
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Tangorra RR, Operamolla A, Milano F, Omar OH, Henrard J, Comparelli R, Italiano F, Agostiano A, De Leo V, Marotta R, Falqui A, Farinola GM, Trotta M. Assembly of a photosynthetic reaction center with ABA tri-block polymersomes: highlights on protein localization. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5pp00189g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The micelle-to-vesicle transition technique was used to reconstitute the integral membrane protein photosynthetic reaction center (RC) and the position of the RC in the polymersome vesicle was investigated.
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