PEGylated anticancer-carbon nanotubes complex targeting mitochondria of lung cancer cells

Therapeutic and diagnostic applications of carbon nanotubes in cancer: recent advances and challenges

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon, composed of carbon atoms forming a tube-like structure. Their high surface area, chemical stability, and rich electronic polyaromatic structure facilitate their drug-carrying capacity. Therefore, CNTs have been intensively explored for several biomedical applications, including as a potential treatment option for cancer. By incorporating smart fabrication strategies, CNTs can be designed to specifically target cancer cells. This targeted drug delivery approach not only maximizes the therapeutic utility of CNTs but also minimizes any potential side effects of free drug molecules. CNTs can also be utilised for photothermal therapy (PTT) which uses photosensitizers to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) to kill cancer cells, and in immunotherapeutic applications. Regarding the latter, for example, CNT-based formulations can preferentially target intra-tumoural regulatory T-cells. CNTs also act as efficient antigen presenters. With their capabilities for photoacoustic, fluorescent and Raman imaging, CNTs are excellent diagnostic tools as well. Further, metallic nanoparticles, such as gold or silver nanoparticles, are combined with CNTs to create nanobiosensors to measure biological reactions. This review focuses on current knowledge about the theranostic potential of CNT, challenges associated with their large-scale production, their possible side effects and important parameters to consider when exploring their clinical usage.

A Critical Appraisal of Functionalized 2-Dimensional Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery Applications

The development of an efficient and innovative drug delivery system is essential to improve the pharmacological parameters of the medicinal compound or drug. The technique or manner used to improve the pharmacological parameters plays a crucial role in the delivery system. In the current scenario, various drug delivery systems are available where nanotechnology has firmly established itself in the field of drug delivery. One of the most prevalent elements is carbon with its allotropic modifications such as graphene-based nanomaterials, carbon nanotubes, carbon dots, and carbon fullerenes, these nanomaterials offer notable physiochemical and biochemical properties for the delivery applications due to their smaller size, surface area, and ability to interact with the cells or tissues. The exceptional physicochemical properties of carbon-based 2D nanomaterials, such as graphene and carbon nanotubes, make them attractive candidates for drug delivery systems. These nanomaterials offer a large surface area, high drug loading capacity, and tunable surface chemistry, enabling efficient encapsulation, controlled release, and targeted delivery of therapeutic agents. These properties of the nanomaterials can be exploited for drug delivery applications, like assisting the target delivery of drugs and aiding combination molecular imaging. This review emphasizes on the recent patents on 2D carbon-based nanomaterial and their role in drug delivery systems. Carbon-based 2D nanomaterials present a wealth of opportunities for advanced drug delivery systems. Their exceptional properties and versatility offers great potential in improving therapeutic efficacy, minimizing side effects, and enabling personalized medicine and the recent patents on 2D nanomaterial.

Nano-mediated strategy for targeting and treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)

Lung cancer is the most common type of cancer, with over 2.1 million cases diagnosed annually worldwide. It has a high incidence and mortality rate, leading to extensive research into various treatment options, including the use of nanomaterial-based carriers for drug delivery. With regard to cancer treatment, the distinct biological and physico-chemical features of nano-structures have acquired considerable impetus as drug delivery system (DDS) for delivering medication combinations or combining diagnostics and targeted therapy. This review focuses on the use of nanomedicine-based drug delivery systems in the treatment of lung cancer, including the use of lipid, polymer, and carbon-based nanomaterials for traditional therapies such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and phototherapy. The review also discusses the potential of stimuli-responsive nanomaterials for drug delivery in lung cancer, and the limitations and opportunities for improving the design of nano-based materials for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

The Use of Crystalline Carbon-Based Nanomaterials (CBNs) in Various Biomedical Applications

This review study aims to present, in a condensed manner, the significance of the use of crystalline carbon-based nanomaterials in biomedical applications. Crystalline carbon-based nanomaterials, encompassing graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, and graphene quantum dots, have emerged as promising materials for the development of medical devices in various biomedical applications. These materials possess inorganic semiconducting attributes combined with organic π-π stacking features, allowing them to efficiently interact with biomolecules and present enhanced light responses. By harnessing these unique properties, carbon-based nanomaterials offer promising opportunities for future advancements in biomedicine. Recent studies have focused on the development of these nanomaterials for targeted drug delivery, cancer treatment, and biosensors. The conjugation and modification of carbon-based nanomaterials have led to significant advancements in a plethora of therapies and have addressed limitations in preclinical biomedical applications. Furthermore, the wide-ranging therapeutic advantages of carbon nanotubes have been thoroughly examined in the context of biomedical applications.

Cancer Cell Membrane Wrapped Nanoparticles for the Delivery of a Bcl-2 Inhibitor to Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Overexpression of the antiapoptotic protein B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) is correlated with poor survival outcomes in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), making Bcl-2 inhibition a promising strategy to treat this aggressive disease. Unfortunately, Bcl-2 inhibitors developed to date have limited clinical success against solid tumors, owing to poor bioavailability, insufficient tumor delivery, and off-target toxicity. To circumvent these problems, we loaded the Bcl-2 inhibitor ABT-737 in poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) that were wrapped with phospholipid membranes derived from 4T1 murine mammary cancer cells, which mimic the growth and metastasis of human TNBC. We show that the biomimetic cancer cell membrane coating enabled the NPs to preferentially target 4T1 TNBC cells over noncancerous mammary epithelial cells in vitro and significantly increased NP accumulation in orthotopic 4T1 tumors in mice after intravenous injection by over 2-fold compared to poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactide-co-glycolic) (PEG-PLGA) copolymer NPs. Congruently, the ABT-737 loaded, cancer cell membrane-wrapped PLGA NPs (ABT CCNPs) induced higher levels of apoptosis in TNBC cells in vitro than ABT-737 delivered freely or in PEG-PLGA NPs. When tested in a syngeneic spontaneous metastasis model, the ABT CCNPs significantly increased apoptosis (evidenced by elevated active caspase-3 and decreased Bcl-2 staining) and decreased proliferation (denoted by reduced Ki67 staining) throughout tumors compared with saline or ABT-loaded PEG-PLGA NP controls. Moreover, the ABT CCNPs did not alter animal weight or blood composition, suggesting that the specificity afforded by the TNBC cell membrane coating mitigated the off-target adverse effects typically associated with ABT-737. Despite these promising results, the low dose of ABT CCNPs administered only modestly reduced primary tumor growth and metastatic nodule formation in the lungs relative to controls. We posit that increasing the dose of ABT CCNPs, altering the treatment schedule, or encapsulating a more potent Bcl-2 inhibitor may yield more robust effects on tumor growth and metastasis. With further development, drug-loaded biomimetic NPs may safely treat solid tumors such as TNBC that are characterized by Bcl-2 overexpression.

Microwave-Assisted Functionalization of Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes for Biosensor and Drug Delivery Applications

Microwave-assisted synthetic methods have emerged as a popular technique for surface modification and the functionalization of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) for diverse drug delivery applications. Microwave-induced functionalization of MWCNTs provides a high functionalization and requires less time than conventional techniques. Microwave methods are simple, fast, and effective for the covalent and noncovalent conjugation of MWCNTs with various biomolecules and polymers. The present review focuses on the synthetic and drug delivery applications of microwave irradiation techniques (MITs) for the functionalization of MWCNTs, using amino acids and other molecular frameworks containing amino groups, vitamins, proteins, epoxy moieties, metal nanoparticles, and polymers.

Advances in Lung Cancer Treatment Using Nanomedicines

Carcinoma of the lungs is among the most menacing forms of malignancy and has a poor prognosis, with a low overall survival rate due to delayed detection and ineffectiveness of conventional therapy. Therefore, drug delivery strategies that may overcome undesired damage to healthy cells, boost therapeutic efficacy, and act as imaging tools are currently gaining much attention. Advances in material science have resulted in unique nanoscale-based theranostic agents, which provide renewed hope for patients suffering from lung cancer. Nanotechnology has vastly modified and upgraded the existing techniques, focusing primarily on increasing bioavailability and stability of anti-cancer drugs. Nanocarrier-based imaging systems as theranostic tools in the treatment of lung carcinoma have proven to possess considerable benefits, such as early detection and targeted therapeutic delivery for effectively treating lung cancer. Several variants of nano-drug delivery agents have been successfully studied for therapeutic applications, such as liposomes, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, carbon nanotubes, gold nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, hydrogels, and micelles. In this Review, we present a comprehensive outline on the various types of overexpressed receptors in lung cancer, as well as the various targeting approaches of nanoparticles.

Carbon Nanotubes as Carriers in Drug Delivery for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer, Mechanistic Analysis of Their Carcinogenic Potential, Safety Profiling and Identification of Biomarkers

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a global burden leading to millions of deaths worldwide every year. Nanomedicine refers to the use of materials at the nanoscale for drug delivery and subsequent therapeutic approaches in cancer. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are widely used as nanocarriers for therapeutic molecules such as plasmids, siRNAs, antisense agents, aptamers and molecules related to the immunotherapy for several cancers. They are usually functionalized and loaded with standard drug molecules to improve their therapeutic efficiency. Functionalization and drug loading possibly decrease the genotoxic and carcinogenic potential of CNTs. In addition, the targeted cytotoxic properties of the drug improve and undesired toxicity decreases after drug loading and/or conjugation with proteins, including antibodies. For intended drug delivery, a lysosomal pH of 5.5 is more suitable and effective for the slow and extended release of cytotoxic drugs than a physiological of pH 7.4. Remarkably, CNTs possess intrinsic antitumor properties and are usually internalized by endocytosis. After being internalized, several mechanisms are involved in the therapeutic and carcinogenic effects of CNTs. They are generally safe for therapy, and their toxicity profile remains dependent on their physicochemical properties. Moreover, the dose, route, duration of exposure, surface properties and degradative potential determine the toxicity outcomes of CNTs locally or systemically. In summary, the use of CNTs in drug delivery and NSCLC therapy, as well as their genotoxic and carcinogenic potential and the possible mechanisms, has been discussed in this review. The therapeutic index is generally high for NSCLC cells treated with drug-loaded CNTs; therefore, they are effective carriers in implementing targeted therapy for NSCLC.

Precision Nanomedicines: Targeting Hot Mitochondria in Cancer Cells

Mitochondrion is a multifunctional organelle in a cell, and it is one of the important targets of antitumor therapy. Conventional mitochondrial targeting strategies can hardly distinguish the mitochondria in cancer cells from those in normal cells, which might raise a concern about the biosafety. Recent studies suggest that a relatively high temperature of mitochondria exists in cancer cells. We named it tumor intrinsic mitochondrial overheating (TIMO). By taking advantage of the difference in mitochondrial temperatures between cancer cells and normal cells, therapeutic agents can be specifically delivered to the mitochondria in cancer cells. Here we will briefly overview the mitochondria-targeted delivery strategies. In addition, the recent discovery of hot mitochondria in cancer cells and the development of mitochondrial temperature-responsive delivery systems for antitumor therapy will be reviewed.

Unveiling the Bio-corona Fingerprinting of Potential Anticancer Carbon Nanotubes Coupled with D-Amino Acid Oxidase

The oxidation therapy, based on the controlled production of Reactive Oxygen Species directly into the tumor site, was introduced as alternative antitumor approach. For this purpose, d-amino acid oxidase (DAAO) from the yeast Rhodotorula gracilis, an enzyme able to efficiently catalyze the production of hydrogen peroxide from d-amino acids, was adsorbed onto multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), previously functionalized with polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) or polyethylene glycol (PEG) at different degrees to reduce their toxicity, to be targeted directly into the tumor. In vitro activity and cytotoxicity assays demonstrated that DAAO-functionalized nanotubes (f-MWCNTs) produced H2O2 and induced toxic effects to selected tumor cell lines. After incubation in human plasma, the protein corona was investigated by SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry analysis. The enzyme nanocarriers generally seemed to favor their biocompatibility, promoting the interaction with dysopsonins. Despite this, PLGA or high degree of PEGylation promoted the adsorption of immunoglobulins with a possible activation of immune response and this effect was probably due to PLGA hydrophobicity and dimensions and to the production of specific antibodies against PEG. In conclusion, the PEGylated MWCNTs at low degree seemed the most biocompatible nanocarrier for adsorbed DAAO, preserving its anticancer activity and forming a bio-corona able to reduce both defensive responses and blood clearance.

Combining PEGylated mito-atovaquone with MCT and Krebs cycle redox inhibitors as a potential strategy to abrogate tumor cell proliferation

Glycolytic and mitochondrial oxidative metabolism, which are two major energy sources in tumors, are potential targets in cancer treatment. Metabolic reprogramming from glycolysis to mitochondrial oxidative metabolism and vice versa is an adaptive strategy with which tumor cells obtain energy to survive and thrive under the compromised conditions of glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration. Developing highly potent, nontoxic, and tumor-selective oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) inhibitors may help advance therapeutic targeting of mitochondrial drugs in cancer. The FDA-approved antimalarial drug atovaquone (ATO), a mitochondrial complex III inhibitor, was repurposed in cancer treatment. Here, we developed a new class of PEGylated mitochondria-targeted ATO (Mito-(PEG)n-ATO). Depending on the PEGylation chain length (n), Mito-PEG-ATO analogs inhibit both mitochondrial complex I- and complex III-induced oxygen consumption in human pancreatic (MiaPaCa-2) and brain (U87MG) cancer cells. Mito-PEG₅-ATO is one of the most potent antiproliferative mitochondria-targeted compounds (IC₅₀ = 38 nM) in MiaPaCa-2 cells, and is more effective than other inhibitors of OXPHOS in MiaPaCa-2 and U87MG cells. Furthermore, we show that the combined use of the most potent OXPHOS-targeted inhibitors (Mito-PEG₅-ATO) and inhibitors of monocarboxylate transporters (MCT-1 and MCT-4), Krebs cycle redox metabolism, or glutaminolysis will synergistically abrogate tumor cell proliferation. Potential clinical benefits of these combinatorial therapies are discussed.

Nanocarrier cancer therapeutics with functional stimuli-responsive mechanisms

Presently, nanocarriers (NCs) have gained huge attention for their structural ability, good biocompatibility, and biodegradability. The development of effective NCs with stimuli-responsive properties has acquired a huge interest among scientists. When developing drug delivery NCs, the fundamental goal is to tackle the delivery-related problems associated with standard chemotherapy and to carry medicines to the intended sites of action while avoiding undesirable side effects. These nanocarriers were able of delivering drugs to tumors through regulating their pH, temperature, enzyme responsiveness. With the use of nanocarriers, chemotherapeutic drugs could be supplied to tumors more accurately that can equally encapsulate and deliver them. Material carriers for chemotherapeutic medicines are discussed in this review keeping in viewpoint of the structural properties and targeting methods that make these carriers more therapeutically effective, in addition to metabolic pathways triggered by drug-loaded NCs. Largely, the development of NCs countering to endogenous and exogenous stimuli in tumor regions and understanding of mechanisms would encourage the progress for tumor therapy and precision diagnosis in future.

Local Delivery of Senolytic Drug Inhibits Intervertebral Disc Degeneration and Restores Intervertebral Disc Structure

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration (IVDD) is a leading cause of chronic low back pain. There is a strong clinical demand for more effective treatments for IVDD as conventional treatments provide only symptomatic relief rather than arresting IVDD progression. This study shows that senolytic therapy with local drug delivery can inhibit IVDD and restore IVD integrity. ABT263, a senolytic drug, is loaded in poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA-ABT) and intradiscally administered into injury-induced IVDD rat models. The single intradiscal injection of PLGA-ABT may enable local delivery of the drug to avascular IVD, prevention of potential systemic toxicity caused by systemic administration of senolytic drug, and morbidity caused by repetitive injections of free drug into the IVD. The strategy results in the selective elimination of senescent cells from the degenerative IVD, reduces expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines and matrix proteases in the IVD, inhibits progression of IVDD, and even restores the IVD structure. This study demonstrates for the first time that local delivery of senolytic drug can effectively treat senescence-associated IVDD. This approach can be extended to treat other types of senescence-associated degenerative diseases.

Insights on functionalized carbon nanotubes for cancer theranostics

Despite the exciting breakthroughs in medical technology, cancer still accounts for one of the principle triggers of death and conventional therapeutic modalities often fail to attain an effective cure. Recently, nanobiotechnology has made huge advancement in cancer therapy with gigantic application potential because of their ability in achieving precise and controlled drug release, elevating drug solubility and reducing adverse effects. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), one of the most promising carbon-related nanomaterials, have already achieved much success in biomedical field. Due to their excellent optical property, thermal and electronic conductivity, easy functionalization ability and high drug loading capacity, CNTs can be applied in a multifunctional way for cancer treatment and diagnosis. In this review, we will give an overview of the recent progress of CNT-based drug delivery systems in cancer theranostics, which emphasizes their targetability to intracellular components of tumor cells and extracellular elements in tumor microenvironment. Moreover, a detailed introduction on how CNTs penetrate inside the tumor cells to reach their sites of action and achieve the therapeutic effects, as well as their diagnostic applications will be highlighted.

An understanding of mitochondria and its role in targeting nanocarriers for diagnosis and treatment of cancer

Nanotechnology has changed the entire paradigm of drug targeting and has shown tremendous potential in the area of cancer therapy due to its specificity. In cancer, several targets have been explored which could be utilized for the better treatment of disease. Mitochondria, the so-called powerhouse of cell, portrays significant role in the survival and death of cells, and has emerged as potential target for cancer therapy. Direct targeting and nanotechnology based approaches can be tailor-made to target mitochondria and thus improve the survival rate of patients suffering from cancer. With this backdrop, in present review, we have reemphasized the role of mitochondria in cancer progression and inhibition, highlighting the different targets that can be explored for targeting of disease. Moreover, we have also summarized different nanoparticulate systems that have been used for treatment of cancer via mitochondrial targeting.

Drug Delivery With Carbon-Based Nanomaterials as Versatile Nanocarriers: Progress and Prospects

With growing interest, a large number of researches have been conducted on carbon-based nanomaterials (CBNs). However, their uses are limited due to comprehensive potential environmental and human health effects. It is often confusing for researchers to make an informed choice regarding the versatile carbon-based nanocarrier system and its potential applications. This review has highlighted emerging applications and cutting-edge progress of CBNs in drug delivery. Some critical factors like enzymatic degradation, surface modification, biological interactions, and bio-corona have been discussed here. These factors will help to fabricate CBNs for effective drug delivery. This review also addresses recent advancements in carbon-based target specific and release controlled drug delivery to improve disease treatment. The scientific community has turned their research efforts into the development of novel production methods of CBNs to make their production more attractive to the industrial sector. Due to the nanosize and diversified physical properties, these CBNs have demonstrated distinct biological interaction. Thus long-term preclinical toxicity study is recommended before finally translating to clinical application.

Recent Advances in Nanomaterial-Based Aptasensors in Medical Diagnosis and Therapy

Rapid and accurate diagnosis of various biomarkers associated with medical conditions including early detection of viruses and bacteria with highly sensitive biosensors is currently a research priority. Aptamer is a chemically derived recognition molecule capable of detecting and binding small molecules with high specificity and its fast preparation time, cost effectiveness, ease of modification, stability at high temperature and pH are some of the advantages it has over traditional detection methods such as High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Higher sensitivity and selectivity can further be achieved via coupling of aptamers with nanomaterials and these conjugates called "aptasensors" are receiving greater attention in early diagnosis and therapy. This review will highlight the selection protocol of aptamers based on Traditional Systematic Evolution of Ligands by EXponential enrichment (SELEX) and the various types of modified SELEX. We further identify both the advantages and drawbacks associated with the modified version of SELEX. Furthermore, we describe the current advances in aptasensor development and the quality of signal types, which are dependent on surface area and other specific properties of the selected nanomaterials, are also reviewed.

Onco-Receptors Targeting in Lung Cancer via Application of Surface-Modified and Hybrid Nanoparticles: A Cross-Disciplinary Review

Lung cancer is among the most prevalent and leading causes of death worldwide. The major reason for high mortality is the late diagnosis of the disease, and in most cases, lung cancer is diagnosed at fourth stage in which the cancer has metastasized to almost all vital organs. The other reason for higher mortality is the uptake of the chemotherapeutic agents by the healthy cells, which in turn increases the chances of cytotoxicity to the healthy body cells. The complex pathophysiology of lung cancer provides various pathways to target the cancerous cells. In this regard, upregulated onco-receptors on the cell surface of tumor including epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), integrins, transferrin receptor (TFR), folate receptor (FR), cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) receptor, etc. could be exploited for the inhibition of pathways and tumor-specific drug targeting. Further, cancer borne immunological targets like T-lymphocytes, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and dendritic cells could serve as a target site to modulate tumor activity through targeting various surface-expressed receptors or interfering with immune cell-specific pathways. Hence, novel approaches are required for both the diagnosis and treatment of lung cancers. In this context, several researchers have employed various targeted delivery approaches to overcome the problems allied with the conventional diagnosis of and therapy methods used against lung cancer. Nanoparticles are cell nonspecific in biological systems, and may cause unwanted deleterious effects in the body. Therefore, nanodrug delivery systems (NDDSs) need further advancement to overcome the problem of toxicity in the treatment of lung cancer. Moreover, the route of nanomedicines’ delivery to lungs plays a vital role in localizing the drug concentration to target the lung cancer. Surface-modified nanoparticles and hybrid nanoparticles have a wide range of applications in the field of theranostics. This cross-disciplinary review summarizes the current knowledge of the pathways implicated in the different classes of lung cancer with an emphasis on the clinical implications of the increasing number of actionable molecular targets. Furthermore, it focuses specifically on the significance and emerging role of surface functionalized and hybrid nanomaterials as drug delivery systems through citing recent examples targeted at lung cancer treatment.

Carbon Nanotubes: Smart Drug/Gene Delivery Carriers

The unique properties of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) (such as their high surface to volume ratios, enhanced conductivity and strength, biocompatibility, ease of functionalization, optical properties, etc.) have led to their consideration to serve as novel drug and gene delivery carriers. CNTs are effectively taken up by many different cell types through several mechanisms. CNTs have acted as carriers of anticancer molecules (including docetaxel (DTX), doxorubicin (DOX), methotrexate (MTX), paclitaxel (PTX), and gemcitabine (GEM)), anti-inflammatory drugs, osteogenic dexamethasone (DEX) steroids, etc. In addition, the unique optical properties of CNTs have led to their use in a number of platforms for improved photo-therapy. Further, the easy surface functionalization of CNTs has prompted their use to deliver different genes, such as plasmid DNA (PDNA), micro-RNA (miRNA), and small interfering RNA (siRNA) as gene delivery vectors for various diseases such as cancers. However, despite all of these promises, the most important continuous concerns raised by scientists reside in CNT nanotoxicology and the environmental effects of CNTs, mostly because of their non-biodegradable state. Despite a lack of widespread FDA approval, CNTs have been studied for decades and plenty of in vivo and in vitro reports have been published, which are reviewed here. Lastly, this review covers the future research necessary for the field of CNT medicine to grow even further.

Targeted Nanotherapeutics for Respiratory Diseases: Cancer, Fibrosis, and Coronavirus

Systemic delivery of therapeutics for treatment of lung diseases has several limitations including poor organ distribution of delivered payload with relatively low accumulation of active substances in the lungs and severe adverse side effects. In contrast, nanocarrier based therapeutics provide a broad range of opportunities due to their ability to encapsulate substances with different aqueous solubility, transport distinct types of cargo, target therapeutics specifically to the deceased organ, cell, or cellular organelle limiting adverse side effects and increasing the efficacy of therapy. Moreover, many nanotherapeutics can be delivered by inhalation locally to the lungs avoiding systemic circulation. In addition, nanoscale based delivery systems can be multifunctional, simultaneously carrying out several tasks including diagnostics, treatment and suppression of cellular resistance to the treatment. Nanoscale delivery systems improve the clinical efficacy of conventional therapeutics allowing new approaches for the treatment of respiratory diseases which are difficult to treat or possess intrinsic or acquired resistance to treatment. The present review summarizes recent advances in the development of nanocarrier based therapeutics for local and targeted delivery of drugs, nucleic acids and imaging agents for diagnostics and treatment of various diseases such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, and coronavirus.

The Applications of Carbon Nanotubes in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Lung Cancer: A Critical Review

The importance of timely diagnosis and the complete treatment of lung cancer for many people with this deadly disease daily increases due to its high mortality. Diagnosis and treatment with helping the nanoparticles are useful, although they have reasonable harms. This article points out that the side effects of using carbon nanotube (CNT) in this disease treatment process such as inflammation, fibrosis, and carcinogenesis are very problematic. Toxicity can reduce to some extent using the techniques such as functionalizing to proper dimensions as a longer length, more width, and greater curvature. The targeted CNT sensors can be connected to various modified vapors. In this regard, with helping this method, screening makes non-invasive diagnosis possible. Researchers have also found that nanoparticles such as CNTs could be used as carriers to direct drug delivery, especially with chemotherapy drugs. Most of these carriers were multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) used for cancerous cell targeting. The results of laboratory and animal researches in the field of diagnosis and treatment became very desirable and hopeful. The collection of researches summarized has highlighted the requirement for a detailed assessment which includes CNT dose, duration, method of induction, etc., to achieve the most controlled conditions for animal and human studies. In the discussion section, 4 contradictory issues are discussed which are invited researchers to do more research to get clearer results.

Past, Present, and Future of Anticancer Nanomedicine

This review aims to summarize the methods that have been used till today, highlight methods that are currently being developed, and predict the future roadmap for anticancer therapy. In the beginning of this review, established approaches for anticancer therapy, such as conventional chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, monoclonal antibodies, and tyrosine kinase inhibitors are summarized. To counteract the side effects of conventional chemotherapy and to increase limited anticancer efficacy, nanodrug- and stem cell-based therapies have been introduced. However, current level of understanding and strategies of nanodrug and stem cell-based therapies have limitations that make them inadequate for clinical application. Subsequently, this manuscript reviews methods with fewer side effects compared to those of the methods mentioned above which are currently being investigated and are already being applied in the clinic. The newer strategies that are already being clinically applied include cancer immunotherapy, especially T cell-mediated therapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors, and strategies that are gaining attention include the manipulation of the tumor microenvironment or the activation of dendritic cells. Tumor-associated macrophage repolarization is another potential strategy for cancer immunotherapy, a method which activates macrophages to immunologically attack malignant cells. At the end of this review, we discuss combination therapies, which are the future of cancer treatment. Nanoparticle-based anticancer immunotherapies seem to be effective, in that they effectively use nanodrugs to elicit a greater immune response. The combination of these therapies with others, such as photothermal or tumor vaccine therapy, can result in a greater anticancer effect. Thus, the future of anticancer therapy aims to increase the effectiveness of therapy using various therapies in a synergistic combination rather than individually.

Far-reaching advances in the role of carbon nanotubes in cancer therapy

Cancer includes a group of diseases involving unregulated cell growth with the potential to invade or expand to other parts of the body, resulting in an estimate of 9.6 million deaths worldwide in 2018. Manifold studies have been conducted to design more efficacious techniques for cancer therapy due to the inadequacy of conventional treatments including chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation therapy. With the advances in the biomedical applications of nanotechnology-based systems, nanomaterials have gained increasing attention as promising vehicles for targeted cancer therapy and optimizing treatment outcomes. Owing to their outstanding thermal, electrical, optical and chemical properties, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been profoundly studied to explore the various perspectives of their application in cancer treatment. The current study aims to review the role of CNTs whether as a carrier or mediator in cancer treatment for enhancing the efficacy as well as the specificity of therapy and reducing adverse side effects. This comprehensive review indicates that CNTs have the capability to be the next generation nanomaterials to actualize noninvasive targeted eradication of tumors. However, further studies are needed to evaluate the consequences of their biomedical application before the transition into clinical trials, since possible adverse effects of CNTs on biological systems have not been clearly understood.

Current Use of Carbon-Based Materials for Biomedical Applications—A Prospective and Review

Among a large number of current biomedical applications in the use of medical devices, carbon-based nanomaterials such as graphene (G), graphene oxides (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and carbon nanotube (CNT) are frontline materials that are suitable for developing medical devices. Carbon Based Nanomaterials (CBNs) are becoming promising materials due to the existence of both inorganic semiconducting properties and organic π-π stacking characteristics. Hence, it could effectively simultaneously interact with biomolecules and response to the light. By taking advantage of such aspects in a single entity, CBNs could be used for developing biomedical applications in the future. The recent studies in developing carbon-based nanomaterials and its applications in targeting drug delivery, cancer therapy, and biosensors. The development of conjugated and modified carbon-based nanomaterials contributes to positive outcomes in various therapies and achieved emerging challenges in preclinical biomedical applications. Subsequently, diverse biomedical applications of carbon nanotube were also deliberately discussed in the light of various therapeutic advantages.

Immune cell engineering: opportunities in lung cancer therapeutics

Engineered immune cells offer a prime therapeutic alternate for some aggressive and frequently occurring malignancies like lung cancer. These therapies were reported to result in tumor regression and overall improvement in patient survival. However, studies also suggest that the presence of cancer cell-induced immune-suppressive microenvironment, off-target toxicity, and difficulty in concurrent imaging are some prime impendent in the success of these approaches. The present article reviews the need and significance of the currently available immune cell-based strategies for lung cancer therapeutics. It also showcases the utility of incorporating nanoengineered strategies and details the available formulations of nanocarriers. In last, it briefly discussed the existing methods for nanoparticle fuctionalization and challenges in translating basic research to the clinics. Graphical Abstract.

Targeting cancer cells with nanotherapeutics and nanodiagnostics: Current status and future perspectives

Nanotechnology is reshaping health care strategies and is expected to exert a tremendous impact in the coming years offering better healthcare facilities. It has led to not only therapeutic drug delivery feasibility but also to diagnostics. Materials in the size of nano range (1-100 nm) used in the design, fabrication, regulation, and application of therapeutic drugs or devices are classified as medical nanotechnology and nanopharmacology. Delivery of more complex molecules to the specific site of action as well as gene therapy has pushed forward the nanoparticle-based drug delivery to its maximum. Areas that benefit from nano-based drug delivery systems are cancer, diabetes, infectious diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, blood disorders and orthopedic-related ailments. Moreover, development of nanotherapeutics with multi-functionalities has a considerable potential to fill the gaps that exist in the present therapeutic domain. In cancer treatment, nanomedicines have superiority over current therapeutic practices as they can effectively deliver the drug to the affected tissues, thus reducing drug toxicities. Along this line, polymeric conjugates of asparaginase and polymeric micelles of paclitaxel have recently been recommended for the treatment of various types of cancers. Nanotechnology-based therapeutics and diagnostics provide greater effectiveness with less or no toxicity concerns. Similarly, diagnostic imaging holds promising future applications with newer nano-level imaging elements. Advancements in nanotechnology have emerged to a newer direction which use nanorobotics for various applications in healthcare. Accordingly, this review comprehensively highlights the potentialities of various nanocarriers and nanomedicines for multifaceted applications in diagnostics and drug delivery, especially the potentialities of polymeric nanoparticle, nanoemulsion, solid-lipid nanoparticle, nanostructured lipid carrier, self-micellizing anticancer lipids, dendrimer, nanocapsule and nanosponge-based therapeutic approaches in the field of cancer. Furthermore, this article summarizes the most recent literature pertaining to the use of nano-technology in the field of medicine, particularly in treating cancer patients.

Functionalization of Carbon Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications

Over the past decade, carbon nanostructures (CNSs) have been widely used in a variety of biomedical applications. Examples are the use of CNSs for drug and protein delivery or in tools to locally dispense nucleic acids to fight tumor affections. CNSs were successfully utilized in diagnostics and in noninvasive and highly sensitive imaging devices thanks to their optical properties in the near infrared region. However, biomedical applications require a complete biocompatibility to avoid adverse reactions of the immune system and CNSs potentials for biodegradability. Water is one of the main constituents of the living matter. Unfortunately, one of the disadvantages of CNSs is their poor solubility. Surface functionalization of CNSs is commonly utilized as an efficient solution to both tune the surface wettability of CNSs and impart biocompatible properties. Grafting functional groups onto the CNSs surface consists in bonding the desired chemical species on the carbon nanoparticles via wet or dry processes leading to the formation of a stable interaction. This latter may be of different nature as the van Der Waals, the electrostatic or the covalent, the π-π interaction, the hydrogen bond etc. depending on the process and on the functional molecule at play. Grafting is utilized for multiple purposes including bonding mimetic agents such as polyethylene glycol, drug/protein adsorption, attaching nanostructures to increase the CNSs opacity to selected wavelengths or provide magnetic properties. This makes the CNSs a very versatile tool for a broad selection of applications as medicinal biochips, new high-performance platforms for magnetic resonance (MR), photothermal therapy, molecular imaging, tissue engineering, and neuroscience. The scope of this work is to highlight up-to-date using of the functionalized carbon materials such as graphene, carbon fibers, carbon nanotubes, fullerene and nanodiamonds in biomedical applications.

Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications: A Recent Study

The study of carbon-based nanomaterials (CBNs) for biomedical applications has attracted great attention due to their unique chemical and physical properties including thermal, mechanical, electrical, optical and structural diversity. With the help of these intrinsic properties, CBNs, including carbon nanotubes (CNT), graphene oxide (GO), and graphene quantum dots (GQDs), have been extensively investigated in biomedical applications. This review summarizes the most recent studies in developing of CBNs for various biomedical applications including bio-sensing, drug delivery and cancer therapy.

Essential roles of mitochondrial and heme function in lung cancer bioenergetics and tumorigenesis

Contrary to Warburg’s hypothesis, mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) contributes significantly to fueling cancer cells. Several recent studies have demonstrated that radiotherapy-resistant and chemotherapy-resistant cancer cells depend on OXPHOS for survival and progression. Several cancers exhibit an increased risk in association with heme intake. Mitochondria are widely known to carry out oxidative phosphorylation. In addition, mitochondria are also involved in heme synthesis. Heme serves as a prosthetic group for several proteins that constitute the complexes of mitochondrial electron transport chain. Therefore, heme plays a pivotal role in OXPHOS and oxygen consumption. Further, lung cancer cells exhibit heme accumulation and require heme for proliferation and invasion in vitro. Abnormalities in mitochondrial biogenesis and mutations are implicated in cancer. This review delves into mitochondrial OXPHOS and lesser explored area of heme metabolism in lung cancer.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Combination Therapy: Two-in-One Approach for Cancer

Cancer represents a group of heterogeneous diseases characterized by uncontrolledgrowth and spread of abnormal cells, ultimately leading to death. Nanomedicine plays a significantrole in the development of nanodrugs, nanodevices, drug delivery systems and nanocarriers. Someof the major issues in the treatment of cancer are multidrug resistance (MDR), narrow therapeuticwindow and undesired side effects of available anticancer drugs and the limitations of anticancerdrugs. Several nanosystems being utilized for detection, diagnosis and treatment such as theranosticcarriers, liposomes, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, polymeric micelles, dendrimers and metallicnanoparticles. However, nonbiodegradable nanoparticles causes high tissue accumulation andleads to toxicity. MDR is considered a major impediment to cancer treatment due to metastatictumors that develop resistance to chemotherapy. MDR contributes to the failure of chemotherapiesin various cancers, including breast, ovarian, lung, gastrointestinal and hematological malignancies.Moreover, the therapeutic efficiency of anticancer drugs or nanoparticles (NPs) used alone is lessthan that of the combination of NPs and anticancer drugs. Combination therapy has long beenadopted as the standard first-line treatment of several malignancies to improve the clinical outcome.Combination therapy with anticancer drugs has been shown to generally induce synergistic drugactions and deter the onset of drug resistance. Therefore, this review is designed to report andanalyze the recent progress made to address combination therapy using NPs and anticancer drugs.We first provide a comprehensive overview of the angiogenesis and of the different types of NPscurrently used in treatments of cancer; those emphasized in this review are liposomes, polymericNPs, polymeric micelles (PMs), dendrimers, carbon NPs, nanodiamond (ND), fullerenes, carbonnanotubes (CNTs), graphene oxide (GO), GO nanocomposites and metallic NPs used forcombination therapy with various anticancer agents. Nanotechnology has provided the convenienttools for combination therapy. However, for clinical translation, we need continued improvementsin the field of nanotechnology.

Preliminary study on conjugation of formononetin with multiwalled carbon nanotubes for inducing apoptosis via ROS production in HeLa cells

Background

The present work was conducted to prepare and evaluate multiwalled carbon nanotube–formononetin (MWCNT-FMN) composite for sustained delivery and inducing apop-tosis via reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in HeLa cells.

Methods

The composite was prepared by solution mixing with short carboxylic group-functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT-COOH). Then the composite was characterized by laser particle size analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectrometry, X-ray diffractometry, differential scanning calorimetry, and scanning electron microscopy. Drug release rates in vitro were determined by dialysis method. The in vitro cytotoxicity study was performed using water soluble tetrazolium assay. The cellular apoptosis assay, ROS, and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) of HeLa cells were investigated by acridine orange and ethidium bromide double dye, 2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate, and 5,5′,6,6′-tetrachloro-1,1′,3,3′-tetraethyl-imidacarbocyanine iodide probe, respectively.

Results

The entrapment efficiency was 28.77%±0.15%, and the loading capacity was 12.05%±0.20%. The release of MWCNT-FMN was sustained, and the cumulative release rate of formononetin (FMN) from MWCNT-COOH was higher at pH 7.4 than at pH 5.3. The in vitro cytotoxicity assay demonstrated that FMN, MWCNT-COOH, and MWCNT-FMN had no significant effects on the proliferation and viability of mouse fibroblast 3T3 cells over 48 hours, while the cell growth inhibition of the three samples showed concentration-dependent for HeLa cells. Biological assay suggested FMN and MWCNT-FMN could induce apoptosis in HeLa cells, meanwhile the cells exhibited stronger ROS signal and more depolarized MMP than that of the control group.

Conclusion

These results preliminarily demonstrated that MWCNT-FMN exerted anticancer efficacy through cellular apoptosis induced by ROS-mediated mitochondrial dysfunctions in HeLa cells.

Destroying Deep Lung Tumor Tissue through Lung-Selective Accumulation and by Activation of Caveolin Uptake Channels Using a Specific Width of Carbon Nanodrug

The main difficulty with current anticancer nanotherapeutics comes from the low efficiency of tumor targeting. Although many strategies have been investigated, including cancer-specific antibody conjugation, lung tumors remain one of the invulnerable types of cancer that must be overcome in the near future. Meanwhile, despite their advantageous physiochemical properties, carbon nanotube structures are not considered safe medical drug delivery agents, but are considered a hazardous source that may cause pulmonary toxicity. However, high-aspect-ratio (width vs. length) nanostructures can be used as very efficient drug delivery agents due to their lung tissue accumulation property. Furthermore, selection of a specific width of the carbon nanostructures can activate additional caveolin uptake channels in cancer cells, thereby maximizing internalization of the nanodrug. The present study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic potential of carbon nanotube-based nanodrugs having various widths (10-30 nm, 60-100 nm, and 125-150 nm) as a delivery agent to treat lung tumors. The results of the present study provided evidence that both lung tissue accumulation (passive targeting) and caveolin-assisted uptake (active targeting) can simultaneously contribute to the destruction of lung tumor tissues of carbon nanotube.

Aptamer-conjugated multi-walled carbon nanotubes as a new targeted ultrasound contrast agent for the diagnosis of prostate cancer

Early diagnosis is primarily important for the therapeutic and prognostic outcomes of malignancies including prostate cancer (PCa). However, the visuality and veracity of ultrasound imaging for the diagnosis and prognostic prediction of PCa remains poor at present. In this study, we developed a new nanoultrasound contrast agent by modifying multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and anti-PSMA aptamer. The result showed that the modified MWCNTs offered better visuality and veracity and were able to target PCa cells more effectively as compared with the traditional contrast agent. The zeta potential was about - 38 mv. The length of this contrast agent was about 400 nm and the diameter of it was about 30 nm. The zeta potential, TEM, and FT-IR all proved the successful preparation of the agent. The vitro cytological study revealed good cell uptake and biocompatibility of the new contrast agent. The minimum detection concentration in vitro is 10 μg/ml. The earliest stage of the detection was under the parameters of frequency = 6.0 MHz and medical index = 0.06. Both in vitro and in vivo ultrasound imaging demonstrated that the new nanoultrasound contrast agent had a good development effect, distribution, and metabolism, and may prove to be a good targeted ultrasound contrast agent, especially for PCa.