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Johnson S, Pokharel R, Lowe M, Dawkins K, Li J, Iyer S. Patterning optimization for device realization of patterned GaAsSbN nanowire photodetectors. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 35:405301. [PMID: 38981449 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ad60cc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
Vertically grown nanowires (NWs) are a research interest in optoelectronics and photovoltaic applications due to their high surface to volume ratio and good light trapping capabilities. This study presents the effects of process and design parameters on self-catalyzed GaAsSbN NWs grown by plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy on patterned silicon substrates using electron beam lithography. Vertical alignment of the patterned NWs examined via scanning electron microscopy show the sensitivity of patterned NW growth to the parameters of NW diameter, pitch, dose time, etching techniques and growth plan. Diameters range from 90 nm to 250 nm. Pitch lengths of 200 nm, 400 nm, 600 nm, 800 nm, 1000 nm, and 1200 nm were examined. Dry etching of the oxide layer of the silicon substrate and PMMA coating is performed using reactive ion etching (RIE) for 20 s and 120 s respectively. Comparisons of different HF etch durations performed pre and post PMMA removal are presented. Additionally, the report of an observed surfactant effect in dilute nitride GaAsSbN NWs in comparison to non-nitride GaAsSb is presented. Optimizations to patterning, RIE, and HF etching are presented to obtain higher vertical yield of patterned GaAsSbN NWs, achieving ∼80% of the expected NWµm2. Room temperature and 4 K photoluminescence results show the effect of nitride incorporation for further bandgap tuning, and patterned pitch on the optical characteristics of the NWs which gives insights to the compositional homogeneity for NWs grown at each pitch length.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Johnson
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, United States of America
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, High Point University, High Point, NC 27268, United States of America
| | - Rabin Pokharel
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401, United States of America
| | - Michael Lowe
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, United States of America
| | - Kendall Dawkins
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401, United States of America
| | - Jia Li
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, United States of America
| | - Shanthi Iyer
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401, United States of America
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2
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Manzoor S, Talib M, Novikov SM, Arsenin AV, Volkov VS, Mishra P. Physisorption-Mediated Charge Transfer in TiS 2 Nanodiscs: A Room Temperature Sensor for Highly Sensitive and Reversible Carbon Dioxide Detection. ACS Sens 2023; 8:3435-3447. [PMID: 37698838 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c00931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
Real-time and high-performance monitoring of trace carbon dioxide (CO2) has become a necessity due to its substantial impact on the global climate, human health, indoor occupancy, and crop productivity. Two-dimensional materials such as transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) have gained significant interest in gas sensing applications owing to their intrinsically high surface-to-volume ratio. However, the research has been limited to prominent TMDs such as WS2 and MoS2. Specifically, the chemiresistive sensing performance of titanium disulfide (TiS2) has rarely been investigated. We present an electric-field-assisted TiS2 nanodisc assembly for the fabrication of a low-cost, low-power CO2 gas sensor based on charge transfer between physisorbed CO2 analyte molecules and TiS2 nanodiscs operating at room temperature. The physiochemical properties of the synthesized TiS2 nanodiscs were investigated via scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron diffraction spectroscopy (EDS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Raman spectroscopy. The fabricated sensor demonstrated an ultra-high sensor response of 60%, a fast response time of 37 s toward 500 ppm CO2 gas, and the lowest detection limit of 5 ppm under ambient conditions. The low adsorption energies and vdW interaction between CO2 molecules and TiS2 resulted in easy desorption, allowing the sensor to self-recover without the need for external stimuli, which is hardly been witnessed in other 2D material analogues. Furthermore, the sensor has excellent reproducibility and stability for successive analyte exposures, as well as excellent selectivity for CO2 over other interfering gases. This reported sensor based on 2D TMDs is the first of its type to integrate such a broad range of sensor characteristics (such as high sensor response and sensitivity, rapid response and recovery times, a high signal-to-noise ratio, and excellent selectivity at room temperature) into a single, revolutionary device for CO2 detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samrah Manzoor
- Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Jamia Millia Islamia (Central University), Jamia Nagar, New Delhi 110025, India
| | - Mohammad Talib
- Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Jamia Millia Islamia (Central University), Jamia Nagar, New Delhi 110025, India
| | - Sergey M Novikov
- Moscow Center for Advanced Studies, Kulakova Street 20, Moscow 123592, Russia
| | - Aleksey V Arsenin
- Moscow Center for Advanced Studies, Kulakova Street 20, Moscow 123592, Russia
- Laboratory of Advanced Functional Materials, Yerevan State University, Yerevan 0025, Armenia
| | - Valentyn S Volkov
- Moscow Center for Advanced Studies, Kulakova Street 20, Moscow 123592, Russia
- Laboratory of Advanced Functional Materials, Yerevan State University, Yerevan 0025, Armenia
| | - Prabhash Mishra
- Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Jamia Millia Islamia (Central University), Jamia Nagar, New Delhi 110025, India
- Quantum Materials and Devices Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Jamia Millia Islamia (Central University), Jamia Nagar, New Delhi 110025, India
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3
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Devkota S, Kuchoor H, Dawkins K, Pokharel R, Parakh M, Li J, Iyer S. Heterostructure axial GaAsSb ensemble near-infrared p-i-n based axial configured nanowire photodetectors. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2023; 34:265204. [PMID: 36893449 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/acc2c6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we present a systematic design of growth experiments and subsequent characterization of self-catalyzed molecular beam epitaxially grown GaAsSb heterostructure axial p-i-n nanowires (NWs) on p-Si <111> for the ensemble photodetector (PD) application in the near-infrared region. Diverse growth methods have been explored to gain a better insight into mitigating several growth challenges by systematically studying their impact on the NW electrical and optical properties to realize a high-quality p-i-n heterostructure. The successful growth approaches are Te-dopant compensation to suppress the p-type nature of intrinsic GaAsSb segment, growth interruption for strain relaxation at the interface, decreased substrate temperature to enhance supersaturation and minimize the reservoir effect, higher bandgap compositions of the n-segment of the heterostructure relative to the intrinsic region for boosting the absorption, and the high-temperature ultra-high vacuumin situannealing to reduce the parasitic radial overgrowth. The efficacy of these methods is supported by enhanced photoluminescence (PL) emission, suppressed dark current in the heterostructure p-i-n NWs accompanied by increased rectification ratio, photosensitivity, and a reduced low-frequency noise level. The PD fabricated utilizing the optimized GaAsSb axial p-i-n NWs exhibited the longer wavelength cutoff at ∼1.1μm with a significantly higher responsivity of ∼120 A W-1(@-3 V bias) and a detectivity of 1.1 × 1013Jones operating at room temperature. Frequency and the bias independent capacitance in the pico-Farad (pF) range and substantially lower noise level at the reverse biased condition, show the prospects of p-i-n GaAsSb NWs PD for high-speed optoelectronic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shisir Devkota
- Department of Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401, United States of America
| | - Hirandeep Kuchoor
- Department of Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401, United States of America
| | - Kendall Dawkins
- Department of Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401, United States of America
| | - Rabin Pokharel
- Department of Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401, United States of America
| | - Mehul Parakh
- Department of Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401, United States of America
| | - Jia Li
- Department of Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401, United States of America
| | - Shanthi Iyer
- Department of Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401, United States of America
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4
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Parakh M, Pokharel R, Dawkins K, Devkota S, Li J, Iyer S. Ensemble GaAsSb/GaAs axial configured nanowire-based separate absorption, charge, and multiplication avalanche near-infrared photodetectors. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2022; 4:3919-3927. [PMID: 36133330 PMCID: PMC9470064 DOI: 10.1039/d2na00359g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In this study, molecular beam epitaxially grown axially configured ensemble GaAsSb/GaAs separate absorption, charge, and multiplication (SACM) region-based nanowire avalanche photodetector device on non-patterned Si substrate is presented. Our device exhibits a low breakdown voltage (V BR) of ∼ -10 ± 2.5 V under dark, photocurrent gain (M) varying from 20 in linear mode to avalanche gain of 700 at V BR at a 1.064 μm wavelength. Positive temperature dependence of breakdown voltage ∼ 12.6 mV K-1 further affirms avalanche breakdown as the gain mechanism in our SACM NW APDs. Capacitance-voltage (C-V) and temperature-dependent noise characteristics also validated punch-through voltage ascertained from I-V measurements, and avalanche being the dominant gain mechanism in the APDs. The ensemble SACM NW APD device demonstrated a broad spectral room temperature response with a cut-off wavelength of ∼1.2 μm with a responsivity of ∼0.17-0.38 A W-1 at -3 V. This work offers a potential pathway toward realizing tunable nanowire-based avalanche photodetectors compatible with traditional Si technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Parakh
- Department of Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University Greensboro North Carolina 27411 USA
| | - R Pokharel
- Department of Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University Greensboro North Carolina 27411 USA
| | - K Dawkins
- Department of Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University Greensboro North Carolina 27411 USA
| | - S Devkota
- Department of Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University Greensboro North Carolina 27411 USA
| | - J Li
- Department of Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University Greensboro North Carolina 27411 USA
| | - S Iyer
- Department of Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University Greensboro North Carolina 27411 USA
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5
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Parakh M, Ramaswamy P, Devkota S, Kuchoor H, Dawkins K, Iyer S. Passivation efficacy study of Al 2O 3dielectric on self-catalyzed molecular beam epitaxially grown GaAs 1-xSb xnanowires. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 33:315602. [PMID: 35468592 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac69f8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This work evaluates the passivation efficacy of thermal atomic layer deposited (ALD) Al2O3dielectric layer on self-catalyzed GaAs1-xSbxnanowires (NWs) grown using molecular beam epitaxy. A detailed assessment of surface chemical composition and optical properties of Al2O3passivated NWs with and without prior sulfur treatment were studied and compared to as-grown samples using x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Raman spectroscopy, and low-temperature photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. The XPS measurements reveal that prior sulfur treatment followed by Al2O3ALD deposition abates III-V native oxides from the NW surface. However, the degradation in 4K-PL intensity by an order of magnitude observed for NWs with Al2O3shell layer compared to the as-grown NWs, irrespective of prior sulfur treatment, suggests the formation of defect states at the NW/dielectric interface contributing to non-radiative recombination centers. This is corroborated by the Raman spectral broadening of LO and TO Raman modes, increased background scattering, and redshift observed for Al2O3deposited NWs relative to the as-grown. Thus, our work seems to indicate the unsuitability of ALD deposited Al2O3as a passivation layer for GaAsSb NWs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehul Parakh
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro NC, 27401, United States of Americ a
| | - Priyanka Ramaswamy
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro NC, 27411, United States of America
| | - Shisir Devkota
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro NC, 27401, United States of Americ a
| | - Hirandeep Kuchoor
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro NC, 27401, United States of Americ a
| | - Kendall Dawkins
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro NC, 27401, United States of Americ a
| | - Shanthi Iyer
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro NC, 27401, United States of Americ a
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6
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Chilukuri DM, Yi S, Seong Y. A robust object detection system with occlusion handling for mobile devices. Comput Intell 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/coin.12511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Devi M. Chilukuri
- Department of Mechanical Engineering North Carolina A&T State University Greensboro North Carolina USA
| | - Sun Yi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering North Carolina A&T State University Greensboro North Carolina USA
| | - Younho Seong
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering North Carolina A&T State University Greensboro North Carolina USA
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7
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Ramaswamy P, Devkota S, Pokharel R, Nalamati S, Stevie F, Jones K, Reynolds L, Iyer S. A study of dopant incorporation in Te-doped GaAsSb nanowires using a combination of XPS/UPS, and C-AFM/SKPM. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8329. [PMID: 33859310 PMCID: PMC8050051 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87825-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the first study on doping assessment in Te-doped GaAsSb nanowires (NWs) with variation in Gallium Telluride (GaTe) cell temperature, using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS), conductive-atomic force microscopy (C-AFM), and scanning Kelvin probe microscopy (SKPM). The NWs were grown using Ga-assisted molecular beam epitaxy with a GaTe captive source as the dopant cell. Te-incorporation in the NWs was associated with a positive shift in the binding energy of the 3d shells of the core constituent elements in doped NWs in the XPS spectra, a lowering of the work function in doped NWs relative to undoped ones from UPS spectra, a significantly higher photoresponse in C-AFM and an increase in surface potential of doped NWs observed in SKPM relative to undoped ones. The carrier concentration of Te-doped GaAsSb NWs determined from UPS spectra are found to be consistent with the values obtained from simulated I–V characteristics. Thus, these surface analytical tools, XPS/UPS and C-AFM/SKPM, that do not require any sample preparation are found to be powerful characterization techniques to analyze the dopant incorporation and carrier density in homogeneously doped NWs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Ramaswamy
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC, 27401, USA
| | - Shisir Devkota
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC, 27401, USA
| | - Rabin Pokharel
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC, 27401, USA
| | - Surya Nalamati
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC, 27401, USA
| | - Fred Stevie
- Analytical Instrumentation Facility, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | - Keith Jones
- Asylum Research, an Oxford Instruments Company, 6310 Hollister Ave., Santa Barbara, CA, 93117, USA
| | - Lew Reynolds
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | - Shanthi Iyer
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC, 27401, USA.
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8
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Johnson S, Pokharel R, Lowe M, Kuchoor H, Nalamati S, Davis K, Rathnayake H, Iyer S. Study of patterned GaAsSbN nanowires using sigmoidal model. Sci Rep 2021; 11:4651. [PMID: 33633245 PMCID: PMC7907112 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-83973-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
This study presents the first report on patterned nanowires (NWs) of dilute nitride GaAsSbN on p-Si (111) substrates by self-catalyzed plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy. Patterned NW array with GaAsSbN of Sb composition of 3% as a stem provided the best yield of vertical NWs. Large bandgap tuning of ~ 75 meV, as ascertained from 4 K photoluminescence (PL), over a pitch length variation of 200-1200 nm has been demonstrated. Pitch-dependent axial and radial growth rates show a logistic sigmoidal growth trend different from those commonly observed in other patterned non-nitride III-V NWs. The sigmoidal fitting provides further insight into the PL spectral shift arising from differences in Sb and N incorporation from pitch induced variation in secondary fluxes. Results indicate that sigmoidal fitting can be a potent tool for designing patterned NW arrays of optimal pitch length for dilute nitrides and other highly mismatched alloys and heterostructures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Johnson
- grid.261037.10000 0001 0287 4439Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411 USA
| | - Rabin Pokharel
- grid.261037.10000 0001 0287 4439Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401 USA
| | - Michael Lowe
- grid.261037.10000 0001 0287 4439Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411 USA
| | - Hirandeep Kuchoor
- grid.261037.10000 0001 0287 4439Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401 USA
| | - Surya Nalamati
- grid.261037.10000 0001 0287 4439Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411 USA
| | - Klinton Davis
- grid.266860.c0000 0001 0671 255XNanoscience, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, University of North Carolina At Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27401 USA
| | - Hemali Rathnayake
- grid.266860.c0000 0001 0671 255XNanoscience, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, University of North Carolina At Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27401 USA
| | - Shanthi Iyer
- grid.261037.10000 0001 0287 4439Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401 USA
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Devkota S, Parakh M, Johnson S, Ramaswamy P, Lowe M, Penn A, Reynolds L, Iyer S. A study of n-doping in self-catalyzed GaAsSb nanowires using GaTe dopant source and ensemble nanowire near-infrared photodetector. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2020; 31:505203. [PMID: 33021209 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/abb506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This work reports a comprehensive investigation of the effect of gallium telluride (GaTe) cell temperature variation (TGaTe) on the morphological, optical, and electrical properties of doped-GaAsSb nanowires (NWs) grown by Ga-assisted molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). These studies led to an optimum doping temperature of 550 °C for the growth of tellurium (Te)-doped GaAsSb NWs with the best optoelectronic and structural properties. Te incorporation resulted in a decrease in the aspect ratio of the NWs causing an increase in the Raman longitudinal optical/transverse optical vibrational mode intensity ratio, large photoluminescence emission with an exponential decay tail on the high energy side, promoting tunnel-assisted current conduction in ensemble NWs and significant photocurrent enhancement in the single nanowire. A Schottky barrier photodetector (PD) using Te-doped ensemble NWs with broad spectral range and a longer wavelength cutoff at ∼1.2 µm was demonstrated. These PDs exhibited responsivity in the range of 580-620 A W-1 and detectivity of 1.2-3.8 × 1012 Jones. The doped GaAsSb NWs have the potential for further improvement, paving the path for high-performance near-infrared (NIR) photodetection applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shisir Devkota
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401, United States of America
| | - Mehul Parakh
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401, United States of America
| | - Sean Johnson
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, United States of America
| | - Priyanka Ramaswamy
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, United States of America
| | - Michael Lowe
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, United States of America
| | - Aubrey Penn
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, United States of America
- Analytical Instrumentation Facility, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, United States of America
| | - Lew Reynolds
- Analytical Instrumentation Facility, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, United States of America
| | - Shanthi Iyer
- Nanoengineering, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27401, United States of America
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