Capsaicin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles: design, biodistribution, in silico modeling and in vitro cytotoxicity evaluation

A Comprehensive Review of Capsaicin and Its Role in Cancer Prevention and Treatment

This study examines the fundamental chemical mechanisms responsible for capsaicin's advantageous impact on cancer, specifically investigating its influence on several biological processes such as inflammation in cancer metastasis, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and cellular proliferation. This entity's connections with other signaling pathways, including PI3K/AKT, NF-B, and TRPV channels, which have been linked to tumor growth, are thoroughly examined in this work. This study presents a thorough analysis of preclinical studies and clinical trials investigating the efficacy of capsaicin in treating many forms of cancer, such as breast, prostate, colorectal, pancreatic, and others. Through tests conducted in both live organisms and laboratory settings, it has been determined that capsaicin has the ability to inhibit tumor growth and induce apoptosis in cancer cells. (in vitro and in vivo). Researchers have also looked at the results of combining capsaicin with chemotherapy medications in traditional treatment. The efficacy and bioavailability of capsaicin as a viable medicinal drug are being studied, along with ways to improve its clinical value. The present investigation carefully assesses the challenges and potential options for maximizing the therapeutic benefits of capsaicin, including customized drug delivery and personalized therapeutic strategies. In finalization, this comprehensive investigation brings together the evidence currently obtainable on the anticancer properties of capsaicin, underscoring its potential as an autonomous treatment option in the struggle against cancer. Capsaicin is a compound of significant relevance for continuing research and clinical exploration in the field of cancer treatment due to its diverse mechanisms of action and ability for boosting prevailing therapy approaches.

Dopamine-loaded chitosan-coated solid lipid nanoparticles as a promise nanocarriers to the CNS

Dopamine is unable to access the central nervous system through the bloodstream. Only its precursor can do so, and with an effectiveness below 100% of the dose administered, as it is metabolized before crossing the blood-brain barrier. In this study, we describe a new solid lipid nanocarrier system designed and developed for dopamine. The nanoparticles were prepared by the melt-emulsification method and then coated with chitosan. The nanocarriers developed had a droplet size of about 250 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.2, a positive surface charge (+30 mV), and a percentage encapsulation efficiency of 36.3 ± 5.4. Transmission and scanning electron microscopy verified uniformity of particle size with spherical morphology. Various types of tests were performed to confirm that the nanoparticles designed are suitable for carrying dopamine through the blood-brain barrier. In vitro tests demonstrated the ability of these nanocarriers to pass through endothelial cell monolayers without affecting their integrity. This study shows that the formulation of dopamine in chitosan-coated solid lipid nanoparticles is a potentially viable formulation strategy to achieve the bioavailability of the drug for the treatment of Parkinson's disease in the central nervous system.

The development of nanocarriers for natural products

Natural bioactive compounds from plants exhibit substantial pharmacological potency and therapeutic value. However, the development of most plant bioactive compounds is hindered by low solubility and instability. Conventional pharmaceutical forms, such as tablets and capsules, only partially overcome these limitations, restricting their efficacy. With the recent development of nanotechnology, nanocarriers can enhance the bioavailability, stability, and precise intracellular transport of plant bioactive compounds. Researchers are increasingly integrating nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems (NDDS) into the development of natural plant compounds with significant success. Moreover, natural products benefit from nanotechnological enhancement and contribute to the innovation and optimization of nanocarriers via self-assembly, grafting modifications, and biomimetic designs. This review aims to elucidate the collaborative and reciprocal advancement achieved by integrating nanocarriers with botanical products, such as bioactive compounds, polysaccharides, proteins, and extracellular vesicles. This review underscores the salient challenges in nanomedicine, encompassing long-term safety evaluations of nanomedicine formulations, precise targeting mechanisms, biodistribution complexities, and hurdles in clinical translation. Further, this study provides new perspectives to leverage nanotechnology in promoting the development and optimization of natural plant products for nanomedical applications and guiding the progression of NDDS toward enhanced efficiency, precision, and safety. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology.

Application of Nanoparticles in Human Nutrition: A Review

Nanotechnology in human nutrition represents an innovative advance in increasing the bioavailability and efficiency of bioactive compounds. This work delves into the multifaceted dietary contributions of nanoparticles (NPs) and their utilization for improving nutrient absorption and ensuring food safety. NPs exhibit exceptional solubility, a significant surface-to-volume ratio, and diameters ranging from 1 to 100 nm, rendering them invaluable for applications such as tissue engineering and drug delivery, as well as elevating food quality. The encapsulation of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants within NPs introduces an innovative approach to counteract nutritional instabilities and low solubility, promoting human health. Nanoencapsulation methods have included the production of nanocomposites, nanofibers, and nanoemulsions to benefit the delivery of bioactive food compounds. Nutrition-based nanotechnology and nanoceuticals are examined for their economic viability and potential to increase nutrient absorption. Although the advancement of nanotechnology in food demonstrates promising results, some limitations and concerns related to safety and regulation need to be widely discussed in future research. Thus, the potential of nanotechnology could open new paths for applications and significant advances in food, benefiting human nutrition.

Design of lactoferrin functionalized carboxymethyl dextran coated egg albumin nanoconjugate for targeted delivery of capsaicin: Spectroscopic and cytotoxicity studies

The increased mortality rates associated with colorectal cancer highlight the pressing need for improving treatment approaches. While capsaicin (CAP) has shown promising anticancer activity, its efficacy is hampered due to low solubility, rapid metabolism, suboptimal bioavailability, and a short half-life. Therefore, this study aimed to prepare a lactoferrin-functionalized carboxymethyl dextran-coated egg albumin nanoconjugate (LF-CMD@CAP-EGA-NCs) for the targeted CAP delivery to enhance its potential for colorectal cancer therapy. Briefly, LF-CMD was synthesized through an esterification reaction involving LF as a receptor and CMD as a shell. Concurrently, CAP was incorporated into an EGA carrier using gelation and hydrophobic interactions. The subsequent production of LF-CMD@CAP-EGA-NCs was achieved through the Maillard reaction. Spectral characterizations confirmed the successful synthesis of smooth and spherical-shaped LF-CMD@CAP-EGA-NCs using LF-CMD and EGA-CAP nanoparticles, with high entrapment efficiency and satisfactory drug content. Furthermore, LF-CMD@CAP-EGA-NCs demonstrated a sustained release of CAP (76.52 ± 1.01 % in 24 h, R2 = 0.9966) in pH 5.8 buffer with anomalous transport (n = 0.68) owing to the shell of the CMD and EGA matrix. The nanoconjugate exhibited enhanced cytotoxicity in HCT116 and LoVo cell lines, which is attributed to the overexpression of LF receptors in colorectal HCT116 cells. Additionally, LF-CMD@CAP-EGA-NCs demonstrated excellent biocompatibility, as observed in the FHC-CRL-1831 cell line. In conclusion, LF-CMD@CAP-EGA-NCs can be considered as a promising approach for targeted delivery of CAP and other anticancer agents in colorectal cancer treatment.

Evaluation of Antidepressant Activity of Capsaicin Nanoemulsion in Nicotine Withdrawal-Induced Depression in Mice

Depression is a low-energy condition that has an impact on a person's thoughts, actions, propensities, emotional state, and sense of wellbeing. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 5% of adults are depressed. Individuals who are depressed are commonly prescribed antidepressants, and sometimes, individuals may have other psychiatric conditions that share overlapping symptoms with depression. These cooccurring conditions can complicate the diagnostic process, leading to a misdiagnosis and the prescription of antidepressants. Capsaicin (CAP) is a known antidepressant. Hence, this study aimed to assess the antidepressant activity of CAP nanoemulsion in nicotine (NC) withdrawal-induced depression in mice. Mice treated with CAP (3 mg/kg) showed reduced immobility in the forced swimming test (FST), tail-suspension test (TST), and open field test (OFT). During the OFT, the animals treated with nanoemulsion (CAP 3 mg/kg) spent less time in the corners than the control animals. Biochemical parameters, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH), were observed in reduced quantities in the NC withdrawal model (NWM), where they were slightly increased in the high-dose nanoemulsion (CAP 3 mg/kg) compared to the low-dose nanoemulsion (CAP 1 mg/kg). These results suggest that CAP caused antidepressant activity in the NWM via the nanoemulsion.

Lipid Nanoparticles: An Effective Tool to Improve the Bioavailability of Nutraceuticals

Nano-range bioactive colloidal carrier systems are envisaged to overcome the challenges associated with treatments of numerous diseases. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), one of the extensively investigated drug delivery systems, not only improve pharmacokinetic parameters, transportation, and chemical stability of encapsulated compounds but also provide efficient targeting and reduce the risk of toxicity. Over the last decades, nature-derived polyphenols, vitamins, antioxidants, dietary supplements, and herbs have received more attention due to their remarkable biological and pharmacological health and medical benefits. However, their poor aqueous solubility, compromised stability, insufficient absorption, and accelerated elimination impede research in the nutraceutical sector. Owing to the possibilities offered by various LNPs, their ability to accommodate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules and the availability of various preparation methods suitable for sensitive molecules, loading natural fragile molecules into LNPs offers a promising solution. The primary objective of this work is to explore the synergy between nature and nanotechnology, encompassing a wide range of research aimed at encapsulating natural therapeutic molecules within LNPs.

Design, synthesis, graph theoretical analysis and molecular modelling studies of novel substituted quinoline analogues as promising anti-breast cancer agents

The most promising class of heterocyclic compounds in medicinal chemistry are those with the quinolin-2-one nucleus. It is a versatile heterocyclic molecule that has been put together with numerous pharmaceutical substances and is crucial in the creation of anticancer medications. In this view, the present research work deals with design, synthesis, and characterization of various analogous of quinolin-2-one nucleus and evaluation of their anticancer activity against MCF-7 cells (adenoma breast cancer cell line). Fourteen new compounds have been synthesised using suitable synthetic route and are characterized by FTIR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR and Mass spectral data. Molecular docking studies of the title compounds were carried out using PyRx 0.8 tool in AutoDock Vina program. All the synthesised compounds were exhibited well conserved hydrogen bonding with one or more amino acid residues in the active pocket of EGFR tyrosine kinase (PDB ID: 1m17). The docking score of the derivatives ranged from - 6.7 to - 9.5 kcal mol-1, standard drug Imatinib with - 9.6 kcal mol-1 and standard active ligand 4-anilinoquinazoline with - 7.7 kcal mol-1. The designed compound IV-A1 showed least binding energy (- 9.5 kcal mol-1) against EGFR tyrosine kinase receptor. Further, top scored compound, IV-A1 found to be most significant against MCF-7 cells with IC50 value of 0.0870 µM mL-1, TGI of 0.0958 µM mL-1, GI50 of 0.00499 µM mL-1, LC50 of 1.670 µM mL-1.

Critical Review in Designing Plant-Based Anticancer Nanoparticles against Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), accounting for 85% of liver cancer cases, continues to be the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Although various forms of chemotherapy and immunotherapy have been investigated in clinics, patients continue to suffer from high toxicity and undesirable side effects. Medicinal plants contain novel critical bioactives that can target multimodal oncogenic pathways; however, their clinical translation is often challenged due to poor aqueous solubility, low cellular uptake, and poor bioavailability. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery presents great opportunities in HCC therapy by increasing selectivity and transferring sufficient doses of bioactives to tumor areas with minimal damage to adjacent healthy cells. In fact, many phytochemicals encapsulated in FDA-approved nanocarriers have demonstrated the ability to modulate the tumor microenvironment. In this review, information about the mechanisms of promising plant bioactives against HCC is discussed and compared. Their benefits and risks as future nanotherapeutics are underscored. Nanocarriers that have been employed to encapsulate both pure bioactives and crude extracts for application in various HCC models are examined and compared. Finally, the current limitations in nanocarrier design, challenges related to the HCC microenvironment, and future opportunities are also discussed for the clinical translation of plant-based nanomedicines from bench to bedside.

Capsaicin-loaded alginate nanoparticles embedded polycaprolactone-chitosan nanofibers as a controlled drug delivery nanoplatform for anticancer activity

Nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems have been designed into various structures that can effectively prevent cancer progression and improve the therapeutic cancer index. However, most of these delivery systems are designed to be simple nanostructures with several limitations, including low stability and burst drug release features. A nano-in-nano delivery technique is explored to address the aforementioned concerns. Accordingly, this study investigated the release behavior of a novel nanoparticles-in-nanofibers delivery system composed of capsaicin-loaded alginate nanoparticles embedded in polycaprolactone-chitosan nanofiber mats. First, alginate nanoparticles were prepared with different concentrations of cationic gemini surfactant and using nanoemulsion templates. The optimized formulation of alginate nanoparticles was utilized for loading capsaicin and exhibited a diameter of 19.42 ± 1.8 nm and encapsulation efficiency of 98.7 % ± 0.6 %. Likewise, blend polycaprolactone-chitosan nanofibers were prepared with different blend ratios of their solutions (i.e., 100:0, 80:20, 60:40) by electrospinning method. After the characterization of electrospun mats, the optimal nanofibers were employed for embedding capsaicin-loaded alginate nanoparticles. Our findings revealed that embedding capsaicin-loaded alginate nanoparticles in polycaprolactone-chitosan nanofibers, prolonged capsaicin release from 120 h to more than 500 h. Furthermore, the results of in vitro analysis demonstrated that the designed nanoplatform could effectively inhibit the proliferation of MCF-7 human breast cells while being nontoxic to human dermal fibroblasts (HDF). Collectively, the prepared nanocomposite drug delivery platform might be promising for the long-term and controlled release of capsaicin for the prevention and treatment of cancer.

Microencapsulation of Capsaicin in Chitosan Microcapsules: Characterization, Release Behavior, and Pesticidal Properties against Tribolium castaneum (Herbst)

Capsaicin is a capsaicinoid in hot chili peppers, with excellent antibacterial and antimicrobial activities and a good safety profile, but its poor solubility and instability restrict its effectiveness. This limitation may be mitigated by encapsulation. Herein, capsaicin microcapsules (CCMs) were prepared through layer-by-layer self-assembly, using chitosan and carboxymethyl chitosan as shell materials. The chemical and microstructure structural characterization was evaluated by the methods of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The SEM indicated the microcapsules were irregular in shape with an average size of about 100 μm. The encapsulation had a high loading efficiency of 64.31%. FTIR and XRD revealed the absence of the interaction between the core and shell materials and the amorphous nature of the CCMs. The analysis results of the microcapsules' release behavior showed the burst release of capsaicin in 7 days and a slow progression afterward in three solutions, with the highest release properties in a basic solution, followed by acidic and neutral salt solutions. The entomotoxicity of CCMs was conducted against Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), and its efficacy was compared with pure capsaicin. The CCMs were found to be highly effective against this pest. The LC₅₀ value for capsaicin and its microcapsules was 31.37 and 29.75 mg/kg on adults, respectively. According to these values, T. castaneum's development and reproduction were significantly inhibited compared with the control group. The excellent physicochemical characteristics and insecticidal performance show a high application value for integrated pest control.

Cytotoxic Potential of Bioactive Compounds from Aspergillus flavus, an Endophytic Fungus Isolated from Cynodon dactylon, against Breast Cancer: Experimental and Computational Approach

Endophytic fungi are a diverse group of microorganisms that colonize the inter- or intracellular spaces of plants and exhibit mutual benefits. Their interactions with the host plant and other microbiomes are multidimensional and play a crucial role in the production of secondary metabolites. We screened bioactive compounds present in the extracts of Aspergillus flavus, an endophytic fungus isolated from the roots of the medicinal grass Cynodon dactylon, for its anticancer potential. An in vitro analysis of the Ethyl acetate extract from A. flavus showed significant cytostatic effects (IC₅₀: 16.25 μg/mL) against breast cancer cells (MCF-7). A morphological analysis of the cells and a flow cytometry of the cells with annexin V/Propidium Iodide suggested that the extract induced apoptosis in the MCF-7 cells. The extract of A. flavus increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and caused a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential in MCF-7 cells. To identify the metabolites that might be responsible for the anticancer effect, the extract was subjected to a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. Interestingly, nine phytochemicals that induced cytotoxicity in the breast cancer cell line were found in the extract. The in silico molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation studies revealed that two compounds, 2,4,7-trinitrofluorenone and 3α, 5 α-cyclo-ergosta-7,9(11), 22t-triene-6beta-ol exhibited significant binding affinities (-9.20, and -9.50 Kcal/mol, respectively) against Bcl-2, along with binding stability and intermolecular interactions of its ligand-Bcl-2 complexes. Overall, the study found that the endophytic A. flavus from C. dactylon contains plant-like bioactive compounds that have a promising effect in breast cancer.

Anti-cancer activity of sustained release capsaicin formulations

Capsaicin (trans-8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-noneamide) is a hydrophobic, lipophilic vanilloid phytochemical abundantly found in chili peppers and pepper extracts. Several convergent studies show that capsaicin displays robust cancer activity, suppressing the growth, angiogenesis and metastasis of several human cancers. Despite its potent cancer-suppressing activity, the clinical applications of capsaicin as a viable anti-cancer drug have remained problematic due to its poor bioavailability and aqueous solubility properties. In addition, the administration of capsaicin is associated with adverse side effects like gastrointestinal cramps, stomach pain, nausea and diarrhea and vomiting. All these hurdles may be circumvented by encapsulation of capsaicin in sustained release drug delivery systems. Most of the capsaicin-based the sustained release drugs have been tested for their pain-relieving activity. Only a few of these formulations have been investigated as anti-cancer agents. The present review describes the physicochemical properties, bioavailability, and anti-cancer activity of capsaicin-sustained release agents. The asset of such continuous release capsaicin formulations is that they display better solubility, stability, bioavailability, and growth-suppressive activity than the free drug. The encapsulation of capsaicin in sustained release carriers minimizes the adverse side effects of capsaicin. In summary, these capsaicin-based sustained release drug delivery systems have the potential to function as novel chemotherapies, unique diagnostic imaging probes and innovative chemosensitization agents in human cancers.

Nano-delivery systems for food bioactive compounds in cancer: prevention, therapy, and clinical applications

Bioactive compounds represent a broad class of dietary metabolites derived from fruits and vegetables, such as polyphenols, carotenoids and glucosinolates with potential for cancer prevention. Curcumin, resveratrol, quercetin, and β-carotene have been the most widely applied bioactive compounds in chemoprevention. Lately, many approaches to encapsulating bioactive components in nano-delivery systems have improved biomolecules' stability and targeted delivery. In this review, we critically analyze nano-delivery systems for bioactive compounds, including polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), liposomes, niosomes, and nanoemulsions (NEs) for potential use in cancer therapy. Efficacy studies of the nanoformulations using cancer cell lines and in vivo models and updated human clinical trials are also discussed. Nano-delivery systems were found to improve the therapeutic efficacy of bioactive molecules against various types of cancer (e.g., breast, prostate, colorectal and lung cancer) mainly due to the antiproliferation and pro-apoptotic effects of tumor cells. Furthermore, some bioactive compounds have promised combination therapy with standard chemotherapeutic agents, with increased tumor efficiency and fewer side effects. These opportunities were identified and developed to ensure more excellent safety and efficacy of novel herbal medicines enabling novel insights for designing nano-delivery systems for bioactive compounds applied in clinical cancer therapy.

Surfactant-mediated extraction of capsaicin from Capsicum annuum L. fruit in various solvents

Capsaicin is a valuable compound found in Capsicum annuum. The present study aimed to explore the efficiency of different solvents and surfactants on its extraction by maceration. Ethyl acetate was found to be the best solvent followed by dichloromethane and acetone, respectively. Overall order of efficiency of the solvents used was this: ethyl acetate > dichloromethane > acetone > glycerol > acetonitrile > methanol > acetic acid > toluene. Extractability of ethyl acetate for capsaicin remained unaffected by the surfactants. Tween-80 had very positive effect on the extraction efficiency of dichloromethane (DCM) and acetone. Kinetics of the extraction with the most efficient solvent ethyl acetate showed extraction of capsaicin to follow a pseudo-second order kinetic model. In conclusion, for extraction of capsaicin from green chili, ethyl acetate was the most powerful amongst the solvents used in the present work and tween-80 had a notable positive effect on the efficiency of DCM and acetone.

Guanidine–Curcumin Complex-Loaded Amine-Functionalised Hollow Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer Therapy

The current study focuses on developing a tumour-targeted functionalised nanocarrier that wraps hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles. The guanidine carbonate and curcumin are immobilised on the surface of 3-aminopropyl-triethoxy silane (APTES)-decorated hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles (HMSNP), as confirmed through XPS and NMR analysis. XPS analysis demonstrates that the shape of the hysteresis loops is modified and that pore volume and pore diameter are consequently decreased compared to control. Guanidine (85%) and guanidine–curcumin complex (90%) were successfully encapsulated in HMSNAP and showed a 90% effective and sustained release at pH 7.4 for up to 72 h. Acridine orange/ethidium bromide dual staining determined that GuC-HMNSAP induced more late apoptosis and necrosis at 48 and 72 h compared with Gu-HMNSAP-treated cells. Molecular investigation of guanidine-mediated apoptosis was analysed using western blotting. It was found that cleaved caspases, c-PARP, and GSK-3β (Ser9) had increased activity in MCF-7 cells. GuC-HMSNAP increased the activity of phosphorylation of oncogenic proteins such as Akt (Ser473), c-Raf (Ser249), PDK1 (Ser241), PTEN (Ser380), and GSK-3β (Ser9), thus inducing cell death in MCF-7 cells. Altogether, our findings confirm that GuC-HMNSAP induces cell death by precisely associating with tumour-suppressing proteins, which may lead to new therapeutic approaches for breast cancer therapy.

Capsaicin: A Two-Decade Systematic Review of Global Research Output and Recent Advances Against Human Cancer

Capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) is one of the most important natural products in the genus Capsicum. Due to its numerous biological effects, there has been extensive and increasing research interest in capsaicin, resulting in increased scientific publications in recent years. Therefore, an in-depth bibliometric analysis of published literature on capsaicin from 2001 to 2021 was performed to assess the global research status, thematic and emerging areas, and potential insights into future research. Furthermore, recent research advances of capsaicin and its combination therapy on human cancer as well as their potential mechanisms of action were described. In the last two decades, research outputs on capsaicin have increased by an estimated 18% per year and were dominated by research articles at 93% of the 3753 assessed literature. In addition, anti-cancer/pharmacokinetics, cytotoxicity, in vivo neurological and pain research studies were the keyword clusters generated and designated as thematic domains for capsaicin research. It was evident that the United States, China, and Japan accounted for about 42% of 3753 publications that met the inclusion criteria. Also, visibly dominant collaboration nodes and networks with most of the other identified countries were established. Assessment of the eligible literature revealed that the potential of capsaicin for mitigating cancer mainly entailed its chemo-preventive effects, which were often linked to its ability to exert multi-biological effects such as anti-mutagenic, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. However, clinical studies were limited, which may be related to some of the inherent challenges associated with capsaicin in the limited clinical trials. This review presents a novel approach to visualizing information about capsaicin research and a comprehensive perspective on the therapeutic significance and applications of capsaicin in the treatment of human cancer.

In silico, in vitro screening of antioxidant and anticancer potentials of bioactive secondary metabolites from an endophytic fungus (Curvularia sp.) from Phyllanthus niruri L

The main objective of this research work is to discover novel and efficient phytochemical substances from endophytic fungus found in medicinal plants. Curvularia geniculata L. (C. geniculata L.), an endophytic fungus isolated from Phyllanthus niruri L. (P. niruri L.), was tested against hepatoma cell lines (HepG2) in order to screen their antioxidant and anticancer potentials. The profiling of phytochemicals from the fungal extract was characterized using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and molecular docking was done for the identified compounds against one of the potential receptors predominantly present in the hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines. Among the phytochemicals found, 2-methyl-7-phenylindole had the highest binding affinity (- 8.8 kcal mol^-1) for the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). The stability of 2-methyl-7-phenylindole in the EGFR-binding pockets was tested using in silico molecular dynamics simulation. The fungal extract showed the highest antioxidant activity as measured by DPPH, ABTS radical scavenging, and FRAP assays. In vitro cytotoxicity assay of fungal extract demonstrated the concentration-dependent cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells after 24 h, and the IC₅₀ (50% cell death) value was estimated to be 62.23 μg mL^-1. Typical morphological changes such as condensation of nuclei and deformed membrane structures are indicative of ongoing apoptosis. The mitochondria of HepG2 cells were also targeted by the endophytic fungal extract, which resulted in substantial generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) leading to the destruction of mitochondrial transmembrane potential integrity. These outcomes suggest that the ethyl acetate extract of C. geniculata L. has the potential to be an antioxidant agent and further to be exploited in developing potential anticancer agents.

Combinatorial Delivery of Gallium (III) Nitrate and Curcumin Complex-Loaded Hollow Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer Treatment

The main aims in the development of a novel drug delivery vehicle is to efficiently carry therapeutic drugs in the body's circulatory system and successfully deliver them to the targeted site as needed to safely achieve the desired therapeutic effect. In the present study, a passive targeted functionalised nanocarrier was fabricated or wrapped the hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles with 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane (APTES) to prepare APTES-coated hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles (HMSNAP). A nitrogen sorption analysis confirmed that the shape of hysteresis loops is altered, and subsequently the pore volume and pore diameters of GaC-HMSNAP was reduced by around 56 and 37%, respectively, when compared with HMSNAP. The physico-chemical characterisation studies of fabricated HMSNAP, Ga-HMSNAP and GaC-HMSNAP have confirmed their stability. The drug release capacity of the fabricated Ga-HMSNAP and GaC-HMSNAP for delivery of gallium and curcumin was evaluated in the phosphate buffered saline (pH 3.0, 6.0 and 7.4). In an in silico molecular docking study of the gallium-curcumin complex in PDI, calnexin, HSP60, PDK, caspase 9, Akt1 and PTEN were found to be strong binding. In vitro antitumor activity of both Ga-HMSNAP and GaC-HMSNAP treated MCF-7 cells was investigated in a dose and time-dependent manner. The IC₅₀ values of GaC-HMSNAP (25 µM) were significantly reduced when compared with free gallium concentration (40 µM). The mechanism of gallium-mediated apoptosis was analyzed through western blotting and GaC-HMSNAP has increased caspases 9, 6, cleaved caspase 6, PARP, and GSK 3β(S9) in MCF-7 cells. Similarly, GaC-HMSNAP is reduced mitochondrial proteins such as prohibitin1, HSP60, and SOD1. The phosphorylation of oncogenic proteins such as Akt (S473), c-Raf (S249) PDK1 (S241) and induced cell death in MCF-7 cells. Furthermore, the findings revealed that Ga-HMSNAP and GaC-HMSNAP provide a controlled release of loaded gallium, curcumin and their complex. Altogether, our results depicted that GaC-HMNSAP induced cell death through the mitochondrial intrinsic cell death pathway, which could lead to novel therapeutic strategies for breast adenocarcinoma therapy.

Nanomedicine-Based Delivery Strategies for Breast Cancer Treatment and Management

Breast cancer is one of the most common types of cancer among women globally. It is caused by mutations in the estrogen/progesterone receptors and conventional treatment methods are commonly utilized. About 70–80 percent of individuals with the early-stage non-metastatic disease may be cured. Conventional treatment is far less than the optimal ratio, as demonstrated through the high mortality rate of women with this cancer. However, conventional treatment methods like surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy are not as effective as expected and lead to concerns about low bioavailability, low cellular uptake, emerging resistance, and adverse toxicities. A nanomedicine-based approach is a promising alternative for breast cancer treatment. The present era is witnessing rapid advancements in nanomedicine as a platform for investigating novel therapeutic applications and modern intelligent healthcare management strategies. This paper focuses on nanomedicine-based therapeutic interventions that are becoming more widely accepted for improving treatment effectiveness and reducing undesired side effects in breast cancer patients. By evaluating the state-of-the-art tools and taking the challenges involved into consideration, various aspects of the proposed nano-enabled therapeutic approaches have been discussed in this review.

Natural Products for the Management of Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: Special Focus on Nanoparticles Based Studies

Prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer among men and the second most frequent cause of cancer-related mortality around the world. The progression of advanced prostate cancer to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) plays a major role in disease-associated morbidity and mortality, posing a significant therapeutic challenge. Resistance has been associated with the activation of androgen receptors via several mechanisms, including alternative dehydroepiandrosterone biosynthetic pathways, other androgen receptor activator molecules, oncogenes, and carcinogenic signaling pathways. Tumor microenvironment plays a critical role not only in the cancer progression but also in the drug resistance. Numerous natural products have shown major potential against particular or multiple resistance pathways as shown by in vitro and in vivo studies. However, their efficacy in clinical trials has been undermined by their unfavorable pharmacological properties (hydrophobic molecules, instability, low pharmacokinetic profile, poor water solubility, and high excretion rate). Nanoparticle formulations can provide a way out of the stalemate, employing targeted drug delivery, improved pharmacokinetic drug profile, and transportation of diagnostic and therapeutic agents via otherwise impermeable biological barriers. This review compiles the available evidence regarding the use of natural products for the management of CRPC with a focus on nanoparticle formulations. PubMed and Google Scholar search engines were used for preclinical studies, while ClinicalTrials.gov and PubMed were searched for clinical studies. The results of our study suggest the efficacy of natural compounds such as curcumin, resveratrol, apigenin, quercetin, fisetin, luteolin, kaempferol, genistein, berberine, ursolic acid, eugenol, gingerol, and ellagic acid against several mechanisms leading to castration resistance in preclinical studies, but fail to set the disease under control in clinical studies. Nanoparticle formulations of curcumin and quercetin seem to increase their potential in clinical settings. Using nanoparticles based on betulinic acid, capsaicin, sintokamide A, niphatenones A and B, as well as atraric acid seems promising but needs to be verified with preclinical and clinical studies.

Pharmacoinformatics-based investigation of bioactive compounds of Rasam (South Indian recipe) against human cancer

Spice-rich recipes are referred to as “functional foods” because they include a variety of bioactive chemicals that have health-promoting properties, in addition to their nutritional value. Using pharmacoinformatics-based analysis, we explored the relevance of bioactive chemicals found in Rasam (a South Indian cuisine) against oxidative stress-induced human malignancies. The Rasam is composed of twelve main ingredients, each of which contains a variety of bioactive chemicals. Sixty-six bioactive compounds were found from these ingredients, and their structures were downloaded from Pubchem. To find the right target via graph theoretical analysis (mitogen-activated protein kinase 6 (MAPK6)) and decipher their signaling route, a network was built. Sixty-six bioactive compounds were used for in silico molecular docking study against MAPK6 and compared with known MAPK6 inhibitor drug (PD-173955). The top four compounds were chosen for further study based on their docking scores and binding energies. In silico analysis predicted ADMET and physicochemical properties of the selected compounds and were used to assess their drug-likeness. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation modelling methodology was also used to analyse the effectiveness and safety profile of selected bioactive chemicals based on the docking score, as well as to assess the stability of the MAPK6-ligand complex. Surprisingly, the discovered docking scores against MAPK6 revealed that the selected bioactive chemicals exhibit varying binding ability ranges between − 3.5 and − 10.6 kcal mol⁻¹. MD simulation validated the stability of four chemicals at the MAPK6 binding pockets, including Assafoetidinol A (ASA), Naringin (NAR), Rutin (RUT), and Tomatine (TOM). According to the results obtained, fifty of the sixty-six compounds showed higher binding energy (− 6.1 to − 10.6 kcal mol⁻¹), and four of these compounds may be used as lead compounds to protect cells against oxidative stress-induced human malignancies.

A Review on Conventional and Advanced Methods for Nanotoxicology Evaluation of Engineered Nanomaterials

Nanotechnology can be defined as the field of science and technology that studies material at nanoscale (1-100 nm). These nanomaterials, especially carbon nanostructure-based composites and biopolymer-based nanocomposites, exhibit excellent chemical, physical, mechanical, electrical, and many other properties beneficial for their application in many consumer products (e.g., industrial, food, pharmaceutical, and medical). The current literature reports that the increased exposure of humans to nanomaterials could toxicologically affect their environment. Hence, this paper aims to present a review on the possible nanotoxicology assays that can be used to evaluate the toxicity of engineered nanomaterials. The different ways humans are exposed to nanomaterials are discussed, and the recent toxicity evaluation approaches of these nanomaterials are critically assessed.

Mixed phytochemicals mediated synthesis of copper nanoparticles for anticancer and larvicidal applications

The synthesis of copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) using Wrightia tinctoria (Wt) R.Br extract is defined in this article as being convenient, environmentally friendly, and non-toxic. UV-visible spectrophotometry, FT-IR, XRD, particle size analyser, SEM-EDAX and TEM methods were used to describe the physicochemical properties of Wt extract mediated synthesized CuNPs (Wt-CuNPs). The Wt-CuNPs synthesized was found to be monodispersed and spherical, with an average size of 15 nm. Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) research revealed that the Wt R.Br plant extract contains various phytochemical compounds. The properties of Wt-CuNPs were verified by the findings of characterization tests. Via in silico molecular docking experiments with established targets, the underlying mechanisms of cytotoxicity against breast cancer and larvicidal behaviour against Aedes aegypti of Wt-CuNPs were investigated. Interestingly, in vitro cytotoxicity studies showed 50% cell death (IC50) of Wt-CuNPs treated MCF-7 cells and Vero Cells (Kidney epithelial cells) were displayed at 119.23 μg.mL-1 and 898.75 μg.mL-1, respectively. Also, Wt-CuNPs showed least LC50 and LC90 values for larvicidal activity against A. aegypti were of 32.10 μg.mL-1 and 21.70 μg.mL-1, respectively. Furthermore, Wt-CuNPs is found to be less toxic and biocompatible in haemolytic assays. The findings clearly showed that biosynthesized Wt-CuNPs have been used as a possible anticancer and larvicidal agent, as well as being environmentally friendly.

Current Strategies in Assessment of Nanotoxicity: Alternatives to In Vivo Animal Testing

Millions of experimental animals are widely used in the assessment of toxicological or biological effects of manufactured nanomaterials in medical technology. However, the animal consciousness has increased and become an issue for debate in recent years. Currently, the principle of the 3Rs (i.e., reduction, refinement, and replacement) is applied to ensure the more ethical application of humane animal research. In order to avoid unethical procedures, the strategy of alternatives to animal testing has been employed to overcome the drawbacks of animal experiments. This article provides current alternative strategies to replace or reduce the use of experimental animals in the assessment of nanotoxicity. The currently available alternative methods include in vitro and in silico approaches, which can be used as cost-effective approaches to meet the principle of the 3Rs. These methods are regarded as non-animal approaches and have been implemented in many countries for scientific purposes. The in vitro experiments related to nanotoxicity assays involve cell culture testing and tissue engineering, while the in silico methods refer to prediction using molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulations, and quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) modeling. The commonly used novel cell-based methods and computational approaches have the potential to help minimize the use of experimental animals for nanomaterial toxicity assessments.