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Vėbraitė I, Bar-Haim C, David-Pur M, Hanein Y. Bi-directional electrical recording and stimulation of the intact retina with a screen-printed soft probe: a feasibility study. Front Neurosci 2024; 17:1288069. [PMID: 38264499 PMCID: PMC10804455 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1288069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Electrophysiological investigations of intact neural circuits are challenged by the gentle and complex nature of neural tissues. Bi-directional electrophysiological interfacing with the retina, in its intact form, is particularly demanding and currently there is no feasible approach to achieve such investigations. Here we present a feasibility study of a novel soft multi-electrode array suitable for bi-directional electrophysiological study of the intact retina. Methods Screen-printed soft electrode arrays were developed and tested. The soft probes were designed to accommodate the curvature of the retina in the eye and offer an opportunity to study the retina in its intact form. Results For the first time, we show both electrical recording and stimulation capabilities from the intact retina. In particular, we demonstrate the ability to characterize retina responses to electrical stimulation and reveal stable, direct, and indirect responses compared with ex-vivo conditions. Discussion These results demonstrate the unique performances of the new probe while also suggesting that intact retinas retain better stability and robustness than ex-vivo retinas making them more suitable for characterizing retina responses to electrical stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ieva Vėbraitė
- School of Electrical Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Chen Bar-Haim
- School of Electrical Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Moshe David-Pur
- School of Electrical Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Yael Hanein
- School of Electrical Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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2
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Almasri RM, Ladouceur F, Mawad D, Esrafilzadeh D, Firth J, Lehmann T, Poole-Warren LA, Lovell NH, Al Abed A. Emerging trends in the development of flexible optrode arrays for electrophysiology. APL Bioeng 2023; 7:031503. [PMID: 37692375 PMCID: PMC10491464 DOI: 10.1063/5.0153753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Optical-electrode (optrode) arrays use light to modulate excitable biological tissues and/or transduce bioelectrical signals into the optical domain. Light offers several advantages over electrical wiring, including the ability to encode multiple data channels within a single beam. This approach is at the forefront of innovation aimed at increasing spatial resolution and channel count in multichannel electrophysiology systems. This review presents an overview of devices and material systems that utilize light for electrophysiology recording and stimulation. The work focuses on the current and emerging methods and their applications, and provides a detailed discussion of the design and fabrication of flexible arrayed devices. Optrode arrays feature components non-existent in conventional multi-electrode arrays, such as waveguides, optical circuitry, light-emitting diodes, and optoelectronic and light-sensitive functional materials, packaged in planar, penetrating, or endoscopic forms. Often these are combined with dielectric and conductive structures and, less frequently, with multi-functional sensors. While creating flexible optrode arrays is feasible and necessary to minimize tissue-device mechanical mismatch, key factors must be considered for regulatory approval and clinical use. These include the biocompatibility of optical and photonic components. Additionally, material selection should match the operating wavelength of the specific electrophysiology application, minimizing light scattering and optical losses under physiologically induced stresses and strains. Flexible and soft variants of traditionally rigid photonic circuitry for passive optical multiplexing should be developed to advance the field. We evaluate fabrication techniques against these requirements. We foresee a future whereby established telecommunications techniques are engineered into flexible optrode arrays to enable unprecedented large-scale high-resolution electrophysiology systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reem M. Almasri
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | | | - Damia Mawad
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Dorna Esrafilzadeh
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Josiah Firth
- Australian National Fabrication Facility, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Torsten Lehmann
- School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | | | | | - Amr Al Abed
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
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3
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Vagni P, Airaghi Leccardi MJI, Vila CH, Zollinger EG, Sherafatipour G, Wolfensberger TJ, Ghezzi D. POLYRETINA restores light responses in vivo in blind Göttingen minipigs. Nat Commun 2022; 13:3678. [PMID: 35760775 PMCID: PMC9237028 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31180-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal prostheses hold the potential for artificial vision in blind people affected by incurable diseases of the outer retinal layer. Available technologies provide only a small field of view: a significant limitation for totally blind people. To overcome this problem, we recently proposed a large and high-density photovoltaic epiretinal device, known as POLYRETINA. Here, we report the in vivo assessment of POLYRETINA. First, we characterise a model of chemically-induced blindness in Göttingen minipigs. Then, we develop and test a minimally invasive injection procedure to insert the large epiretinal implant into the eye. Last, we show that POLYRETINA restores light-evoked cortical responses in blind animals at safe irradiance levels. These results indicate that POLYRETINA holds the potential for artificial vision in totally blind patients affected by retinitis pigmentosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Vagni
- Medtronic Chair in Neuroengineering, Center for Neuroprosthetics and Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Marta Jole Ildelfonsa Airaghi Leccardi
- Medtronic Chair in Neuroengineering, Center for Neuroprosthetics and Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Charles-Henri Vila
- Medtronic Chair in Neuroengineering, Center for Neuroprosthetics and Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Elodie Geneviève Zollinger
- Medtronic Chair in Neuroengineering, Center for Neuroprosthetics and Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Golnaz Sherafatipour
- Medtronic Chair in Neuroengineering, Center for Neuroprosthetics and Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Thomas J Wolfensberger
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Lausanne, Hôpital Ophtalmique Jules-Gonin, Fondation Asile des Aveugles, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Diego Ghezzi
- Medtronic Chair in Neuroengineering, Center for Neuroprosthetics and Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland.
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4
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Raghuram V, Werginz P, Fried SI, Timko BP. Morphological Factors that Underlie Neural Sensitivity to Stimulation in the Retina. ADVANCED NANOBIOMED RESEARCH 2022; 1. [PMID: 35399546 DOI: 10.1002/anbr.202100069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal prostheses are a promising therapeutic intervention for patients afflicted by outer retinal degenerative diseases like retinitis pigmentosa and age-related macular degeneration. While significant advances in the development of retinal implants have been made, the quality of vision elicited by these devices remains largely sub-optimal. The variability in the responses produced by retinal devices is most likely due to the differences between the natural cell type-specific signaling that occur in the healthy retina vs. the non-specific activation of multiple cell types arising from artificial stimulation. In order to replicate these natural signaling patterns, stimulation strategies must be capable of preferentially activating specific RGC types. To design more selective stimulation strategies, a better understanding of the morphological factors that underlie the sensitivity to prosthetic stimulation must be developed. This review will focus on the role that different anatomical components play in driving the direct activation of RGCs by extracellular stimulation. Briefly, it will (1) characterize the variability in morphological properties of α-RGCs, (2) detail the influence of morphology on the direct activation of RGCs by electric stimulation, and (3) describe some of the potential biophysical mechanisms that could explain differences in activation thresholds and electrically evoked responses between RGC types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vineeth Raghuram
- Boston VA Healthcare System, 150 S Huntington Ave, Boston, MA 02130, USA.,Dept. of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, 4 Colby Street, Medford, MA 02155, USA.,Dept. of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital - Harvard Medical School, 50 Blossom Street, Boston, MA, 02114
| | - Paul Werginz
- Institute for Analysis and Scientific Computing, Vienna University of Technology, Wiedner Hauptstrasse 8-10, Vienna, Austria.,Dept. of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital - Harvard Medical School, 50 Blossom Street, Boston, MA, 02114
| | - Shelley I Fried
- Boston VA Healthcare System, 150 S Huntington Ave, Boston, MA 02130, USA.,Dept. of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, 4 Colby Street, Medford, MA 02155, USA.,Dept. of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital - Harvard Medical School, 50 Blossom Street, Boston, MA, 02114
| | - Brian P Timko
- Dept. of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, 4 Colby Street, Medford, MA 02155, USA
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5
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Palanker D, Głowacki ED, Ghezzi D. Questions about the role of P3HT nanoparticles in retinal stimulation. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 16:1330-1332. [PMID: 34887532 PMCID: PMC10789482 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-021-01044-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Palanker
- Department of Ophthalmology and Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Eric Daniel Głowacki
- Bioelectronics Materials and Devices Laboratory, Central European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Diego Ghezzi
- Medtronic Chair in Neuroengineering, Center for Neuroprosthetics and Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland
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6
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Chiaravalli G, Manfredi G, Sacco R, Lanzani G. Photoelectrochemistry and Drift-Diffusion Simulations in a Polythiophene Film Interfaced with an Electrolyte. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:36595-36604. [PMID: 34310106 PMCID: PMC8397247 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c10158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Although the efficiency of organic polymer-based retinal devices has been proved, the interpretation of the working mechanisms that grant photostimulation at the polymer/neuron interface is still a matter of debate. To contribute solving this issue, we focus here on the characterization of the interface between poly(3-hexyltiophene) films and water by the combined use of electrochemistry and mathematical modeling. Simulations well reproduce the buildup of photovoltage (zero current condition) upon illumination of the working electrode made by a polymer film deposited onto an indium tin oxide (ITO) substrate. Due to the essential unipolar transport in the photoexcited film, diffusion leads to a space charge separation that is responsible for the initial photovoltage. Later, electron transfer reactions toward oxygen in the electrolyte extract negative charge from the polymer. In spite of the simple model studied, all of these considerations shed light on the possible coupling mechanisms between the polymeric device and the living cell, supporting the hypothesis of pseudocapacitive coupling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greta Chiaravalli
- Center
for Nano Science and Technology, Istituto
Italiano di Tecnologia, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Department
of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanni Manfredi
- Center
for Nano Science and Technology, Istituto
Italiano di Tecnologia, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Riccardo Sacco
- Department
of Mathematics, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Guglielmo Lanzani
- Center
for Nano Science and Technology, Istituto
Italiano di Tecnologia, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Department
of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
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7
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Gaillet V, Borda E, Zollinger EG, Ghezzi D. A machine-learning algorithm correctly classifies cortical evoked potentials from both visual stimulation and electrical stimulation of the optic nerve. J Neural Eng 2021; 18. [PMID: 33823498 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/abf523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Objective. Optic nerve's intraneural stimulation is an emerging neuroprosthetic approach to provide artificial vision to totally blind patients. An open question is the possibility to evoke individual non-overlapping phosphenes via selective intraneural optic nerve stimulation. To begin answering this question, first, we aim at showing in preclinical experiments with animals that each intraneural electrode could evoke a distinguishable activity pattern in the primary visual cortex.Approach. We performed both patterned visual stimulation and patterned electrical stimulation in healthy rabbits while recording evoked cortical activity with an electrocorticogram array in the primary visual cortex. Electrical stimulation was delivered to the optic nerve with the intraneural array OpticSELINE. We used a support vector machine algorithm paired to a linear regression model to classify cortical responses originating from visual stimuli located in different portions of the visual field and electrical stimuli from the different electrodes of the OpticSELINE.Main results. Cortical activity induced by visual and electrical stimulation could be classified with nearly 100% accuracy relative to the specific location in the visual field or electrode in the array from which it originated. For visual stimulation, the accuracy increased with the separation of the stimuli and reached 100% for separation higher than 7°. For electrical stimulation, at low current amplitudes, the accuracy increased with the distance between electrodes, while at higher current amplitudes, the accuracy was nearly 100% already for the shortest separation.Significance. Optic nerve's intraneural stimulation with the OpticSELINE induced discernible cortical activity patterns. These results represent a necessary condition for an optic nerve prosthesis to deliver vision with non-overlapping phosphene. However, clinical investigations will be required to assess the translation of these results into perceptual phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivien Gaillet
- Medtronic Chair in Neuroengineering, Center for Neuroprosthetics and Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, École Polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
| | - Eleonora Borda
- Medtronic Chair in Neuroengineering, Center for Neuroprosthetics and Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, École Polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
| | - Elodie Geneviève Zollinger
- Medtronic Chair in Neuroengineering, Center for Neuroprosthetics and Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, École Polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
| | - Diego Ghezzi
- Medtronic Chair in Neuroengineering, Center for Neuroprosthetics and Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, École Polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
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8
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Chenais NAL, Airaghi Leccardi MJI, Ghezzi D. Naturalistic spatiotemporal modulation of epiretinal stimulation increases the response persistence of retinal ganglion cell. J Neural Eng 2021; 18. [DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/abcd6f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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9
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Titchener SA, Kvansakul J, Shivdasani MN, Fallon JB, Nayagam DAX, Epp SB, Williams CE, Barnes N, Kentler WG, Kolic M, Baglin EK, Ayton LN, Abbott CJ, Luu CD, Allen PJ, Petoe MA. Oculomotor Responses to Dynamic Stimuli in a 44-Channel Suprachoroidal Retinal Prosthesis. Transl Vis Sci Technol 2020; 9:31. [PMID: 33384885 PMCID: PMC7757638 DOI: 10.1167/tvst.9.13.31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To investigate oculomotor behavior in response to dynamic stimuli in retinal implant recipients. Methods Three suprachoroidal retinal implant recipients performed a four-alternative forced-choice motion discrimination task over six sessions longitudinally. Stimuli were a single white bar (“moving bar”) or a series of white bars (“moving grating”) sweeping left, right, up, or down across a 42″ monitor. Performance was compared with normal video processing and scrambled video processing (randomized image-to-electrode mapping to disrupt spatiotemporal structure). Eye and head movement was monitored throughout the task. Results Two subjects had diminished performance with scrambling, suggesting retinotopic discrimination was used in the normal condition and made smooth pursuit eye movements congruent to the moving bar stimulus direction. These two subjects also made stimulus-related eye movements resembling optokinetic reflex (OKR) for moving grating stimuli, but the movement was incongruent with stimulus direction. The third subject was less adept at the task, appeared primarily reliant on head position cues (head movements were congruent to stimulus direction), and did not exhibit retinotopic discrimination and associated eye movements. Conclusions Our observation of smooth pursuit indicates residual functionality of cortical direction-selective circuits and implies a more naturalistic perception of motion than expected. A distorted OKR implies improper functionality of retinal direction-selective circuits, possibly due to retinal remodeling or the non-selective nature of the electrical stimulation. Translational Relevance Retinal implant users can make naturalistic eye movements in response to moving stimuli, highlighting the potential for eye tracker feedback to improve perceptual localization and image stabilization in camera-based visual prostheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel A Titchener
- Bionics Institute, East Melbourne, Australia.,Medical Bionics Department, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Jessica Kvansakul
- Bionics Institute, East Melbourne, Australia.,Medical Bionics Department, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Mohit N Shivdasani
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia.,Bionics Institute, East Melbourne, Australia
| | - James B Fallon
- Bionics Institute, East Melbourne, Australia.,Medical Bionics Department, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - D A X Nayagam
- Bionics Institute, East Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, St. Vincent's Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
| | | | - Chris E Williams
- Bionics Institute, East Melbourne, Australia.,Medical Bionics Department, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Nick Barnes
- Data61, CSIRO, Canberra, Australia.,Research School of Engineering, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - William G Kentler
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Maria Kolic
- Centre for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye & Ear Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Elizabeth K Baglin
- Centre for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye & Ear Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Lauren N Ayton
- Centre for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye & Ear Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Carla J Abbott
- Centre for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye & Ear Hospital, Melbourne, Australia.,Ophthalmology, Department of Surgery, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Chi D Luu
- Centre for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye & Ear Hospital, Melbourne, Australia.,Ophthalmology, Department of Surgery, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Penelope J Allen
- Centre for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye & Ear Hospital, Melbourne, Australia.,Ophthalmology, Department of Surgery, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Matthew A Petoe
- Bionics Institute, East Melbourne, Australia.,Medical Bionics Department, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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Thorn JT, Migliorini E, Ghezzi D. Virtual reality simulation of epiretinal stimulation highlights the relevance of the visual angle in prosthetic vision. J Neural Eng 2020; 17:056019. [DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/abb5bc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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11
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Srivastava SB, Melikov R, Yildiz E, Han M, Sahin A, Nizamoglu S. Efficient photocapacitors via ternary hybrid photovoltaic optimization for photostimulation of neurons. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 11:5237-5248. [PMID: 33014611 PMCID: PMC7510852 DOI: 10.1364/boe.396068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Optoelectronic photoelectrodes based on capacitive charge-transfer offer an attractive route to develop safe and effective neuromodulators. Here, we demonstrate efficient optoelectronic photoelectrodes that are based on the incorporation of quantum dots (QDs) into poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) and [6,6]-Phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) bulk heterojunction. We control the performance of the photoelectrode by the blend ratio, thickness, and nanomorphology of the ternary bulk heterojunction. The optimization led to a photocapacitor that has a photovoltage of 450 mV under a light intensity level of 20 mW.cm-2 and a responsivity of 99 mA/W corresponding to the most light-sensitive organic photoelectrode reported to date. The photocapacitor can facilitate action potential generation by hippocampal neurons via burst waveforms at an intensity level of 20 mW.cm-2. Therefore, the results point to an alternative direction in the engineering of safe and ultra-light-sensitive neural interfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rustamzhon Melikov
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Koc University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
| | - Erdost Yildiz
- Koc University Research Center for Translational Medicine, Koc University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
| | - Mertcan Han
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Koc University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
| | - Afsun Sahin
- Koc University Research Center for Translational Medicine, Koc University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical School, Koc University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
| | - Sedat Nizamoglu
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Koc University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Engineering, Koc University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
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