Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) in the new solvent Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO)/Tetrabutylammonium Fluoride (TBAF)

Effect of Bleaching Processes on Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Cellulose and Carboxymethyl Cellulose from Young and Mature Coconut Coir

The objective of this study was to characterize the properties of cellulose and CMC synthesized from young and mature coconut coir with different bleaching times (bleaching for the first time; 1 BT, bleaching for a second time; 2 BT, and bleaching for the third time; 3 BT) using hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The surface morphology, structural information, chemical compositions, and crystallinity of both cellulose and CMC were determined. H2O2 bleaching can support delignification by reducing hemicellulose and lignin, as evidenced by FTIR showing a sharp peak at wave number 1260 cm-1. The cellulose and CMC from coconut coir can be more dispersed and have greater functional characteristics with increasing bleaching times due to the change in accessibility of hydroxyl groups in the structure. The CMC diffraction patterns of coconut coir after the bleaching process showed the destruction of the crystalline region of the original cellulose. The SEM images showed that the surface of CMC was smoother than that of cellulose. The CMCy had a higher water holding capacity (WHC) compared to the CMCm as the bleaching can increase interaction between the polymer and water molecules. Therefore, the best quality of CMC corresponds to CMCy. Based on these findings, bleaching time has a strong effect on the functional properties of cellulose and CMC from coconut coir.

Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation of Empty Fruit Bunches of Palm for Bioethanol Production Using a Microbial Consortium of S. cerevisiae and T. harzianum

A simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) optimization process was carried out on pretreated empty fruit bunches (EFBs) by employing the Response Surface Methodology (RSM). EFBs were treated using sequential acid-alkali pretreatment and analyzed physically by a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The findings revealed that the pretreatment had changed the morphology and the EFBs’ structure. Then, the optimum combination of enzymes and microbes for bioethanol production was screened. Results showed that the combination of S. cerevisiae and T. harzianum and enzymes (cellulase and β-glucosidase) produced the highest bioethanol concentration with 11.76 g/L and a bioethanol yield of 0.29 g/g EFB using 4% (w/v) treated EFBs at 30 °C for 72 h. Next, the central composite design (CCD) of RSM was employed to optimize the SSF parameters of fermentation time, temperature, pH, and inoculum concentration for higher yield. The analysis of optimization by CCD predicted that 9.72 g/L of bioethanol (0.46 g/g ethanol yield, 90.63% conversion efficiency) could be obtained at 72 h, 30 °C, pH 4.8, and 6.79% (v/v) of inoculum concentration using 2% (w/v) treated EFBs. Results showed that the fermentation process conducted using the optimized conditions produced 9.65 g/L of bioethanol, 0.46 g/g ethanol yield, and 89.56% conversion efficiency, which was in close proximity to the predicted CCD model.

Preparation, Characterization and Application of Amorphized Cellulose-A Review

This review describes the methods of cellulose amorphization, such as dry grinding, mercerization, treatment with liquid ammonia, swelling in solvents, regeneration from solutions, etc. In addition, the main characteristics and applications of amorphized celluloses are discussed. An optimal method for preparing completely amorphous cellulose (CAC) via the treatment of original cellulose material with a cold NaOH/Urea-solvent at the solvent to cellulose ratio R ≥ 5 is proposed. Structural studies show that amorphous cellulose contains mesomorphous clusters with a size of 1.85 nm and specific gravity of 1.49 g/cm³. Furthermore, each such cluster consists of about five glucopyranose layers with an average interlayer spacing of 0.45 nm. Amorphous cellulose is characterized by increased hydrophilicity, reactivity, and enzymatic digestibility. Due to its amorphous structure, the CAC can be used as a promising substrate for enzymatic hydrolysis to produce glucose, which can be applied in biotechnology for growing various microorganisms. In addition, the application of CAC in agriculture is described. A waste-free method for producing amorphous nanocellulose is considered, and the main applications of nanosized amorphous cellulose are discussed.

Adjustment of Hydrophobic Properties of Cellulose Materials

In this study, physicochemical and chemical methods of cellulose modification were used to increase the hydrophobicity of this natural semicrystalline biopolymer. It has been shown that acid hydrolysis of the initial cellulose increases its crystallinity, which improves hydrophobicity, but only to a small extent. A more significant hydrophobization effect was observed after chemical modification by esterification, when polar hydroxyl groups of cellulose were replaced by non-polar substituents. The esterification process was accompanied by the disruption of the crystalline structure of cellulose and its transformation into the mesomorphous structure of cellulose esters. It was found that the replacement of cellulose hydroxyls with ester groups leads to a significant increase in the hydrophobicity of the resulting polymer. Moreover, the increase of the number of non-polar groups in the ester substituent contributes to rise in hydrophobicity of cellulose derivative. Depending on the type of ester group, the hydrophobicity increased in the following order: acetate < propionate < butyrate. Therefore, tributyrate cellulose (TBC) demonstrated the most hydrophobicity among all studied samples. In addition, the mixed ester, triacetobutyrate cellulose (TAB), also showed a sufficiently high hydrophobicity. The promising performance properties of hydrophobic cellulose esters, TBC and TAB, were also demonstrated.