In vivo bioengineered ovarian tumors based on collagen, matrigel, alginate and agarose hydrogels: a comparative study

Attenuating Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition in Cancer through Angiopoietin-Like 4 Inhibition in a 3D Tumor Microenvironment Model

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) plays a crucial role in metastatic cancer progression, and current research, which relies heavily on 2D monolayer cultures, falls short in recapitulating the complexity of a 3D tumor microenvironment. To address this limitation, a transcriptomic meta-analysis is conducted on diverse cancer types undergoing EMT in 2D and 3D cultures. It is found that mechanotransduction is elevated in 3D cultures and is further intensified during EMT, but not during 2D EMT. This analysis reveals a distinct 3D EMT gene signature, characterized by extracellular matrix remodeling coordinated by angiopoietin-like 4 (Angptl4) along with other canonical EMT regulators. Utilizing hydrogel-based 3D matrices with adjustable mechanical forces, 3D cancer cultures are established at varying physiological stiffness levels. A YAP:EGR-1 mediated up-regulation of Angptl4 expression is observed, accompanied by an upregulation of mesenchymal markers, at higher stiffness during cancer EMT. Suppression of Angptl4 using antisense oligonucleotides or anti-cAngptl4 antibodies leads to a dose-dependent abolishment of EMT-mediated chemoresistance and tumor self-organization in 3D, ultimately resulting in diminished metastatic potential and stunted growth of tumor xenografts. This unique programmable 3D cancer cultures simulate stiffness levels in the tumor microenvironment and unveil Angptl4 as a promising therapeutic target to inhibit EMT and impede cancer progression.

Plant-Derived Biomaterials and Their Potential in Cardiac Tissue Repair

Cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of mortality worldwide. The inability of cardiac tissue to regenerate after an infarction results in scar tissue formation, leading to cardiac dysfunction. Therefore, cardiac repair has always been a popular research topic. Recent advances in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine offer promising solutions combining stem cells and biomaterials to construct tissue substitutes that could have functions similar to healthy cardiac tissue. Among these biomaterials, plant-derived biomaterials show great promise in supporting cell growth due to their inherent biocompatibility, biodegradability, and mechanical stability. More importantly, plant-derived materials have reduced immunogenic properties compared to popular animal-derived materials (e.g., collagen and gelatin). In addition, they also offer improved wettability compared to synthetic materials. To date, limited literature is available to systemically summarize the progression of plant-derived biomaterials in cardiac tissue repair. Herein, this paper highlights the most common plant-derived biomaterials from both land and marine plants. The beneficial properties of these materials for tissue repair are further discussed. More importantly, the applications of plant-derived biomaterials in cardiac tissue engineering, including tissue-engineered scaffolds, bioink in 3D biofabrication, delivery vehicles, and bioactive molecules, are also summarized using the latest preclinical and clinical examples.

The Development of a Three-Dimensional Platform for Patient-Derived Ovarian Cancer Tissue Models: A Systematic Literature Review

There is an unmet biomedical need for ex vivo tumour models that would predict drug responses and in turn help determine treatment regimens and potentially predict resistance before clinical studies. Research has shown that three dimensional models of ovarian cancer (OvCa) are more realistic than two dimensional in vitro systems as they are able to capture patient in vivo conditions in more accurate manner. The vast majority of studies aiming to recapitulate the ovarian tumour morphology, behaviors, and study chemotherapy responses have been using ovarian cancer cell lines. However, despite the advantages of utilising cancer cell lines to set up a platform, they are not as informative as systems applying patient derived cells, as cell lines are not able to recapitulate differences between each individual patient characteristics. In this review we discussed the most recent advances in the creation of 3D ovarian cancer models that have used patient derived material, the challenges to overcome and future applications.

Three-dimensional in vitro culture models in oncology research

Cancer is a multifactorial disease that is responsible for 10 million deaths per year. The intra- and inter-heterogeneity of malignant tumors make it difficult to develop single targeted approaches. Similarly, their diversity requires various models to investigate the mechanisms involved in cancer initiation, progression, drug resistance and recurrence. Of the in vitro cell-based models, monolayer adherent (also known as 2D culture) cell cultures have been used for the longest time. However, it appears that they are often less appropriate than the three-dimensional (3D) cell culture approach for mimicking the biological behavior of tumor cells, in particular the mechanisms leading to therapeutic escape and drug resistance. Multicellular tumor spheroids are widely used to study cancers in 3D, and can be generated by a multiplicity of techniques, such as liquid-based and scaffold-based 3D cultures, microfluidics and bioprinting. Organoids are more complex 3D models than multicellular tumor spheroids because they are generated from stem cells isolated from patients and are considered as powerful tools to reproduce the disease development in vitro. The present review provides an overview of the various 3D culture models that have been set up to study cancer development and drug response. The advantages of 3D models compared to 2D cell cultures, the limitations, and the fields of application of these models and their techniques of production are also discussed.

A Systematic Comparative Assessment of the Response of Ovarian Cancer Cells to the Chemotherapeutic Cisplatin in 3D Models of Various Structural and Biochemical Configurations-Does One Model Type Fit All?

Simple Summary

Epithelial Ovarian Cancer is considered to be a ‘silent killer’ and a challenge for gynaecological health across the world due to its asymptotic nature in the early stages, its late-stage diagnosis, high recurrence rate and resistance to currently available treatment methods (chemotherapy). These disheartening figures highlight the need for extensive in vitro studies to better understand this disease. A number of in vitro 3D models are currently available to aid in the study of ovarian cancer and its response to therapeutic methods. In this work, we report, for the first time, a comprehensive comparative study of three widely used 3D in vitro models for ovarian cancer, along with chemotherapy assessment of primary and metastatic cells. Our study highlights the importance of selecting an appropriate 3D in vitro platform, which is based on multiple factors including the origin of cells used, experimental time period and experimental design, even for one specific disease.

Abstract

Epithelial Ovarian Cancer (EOC) is a silent, deadly and aggressive gynaecological disease with a relatively low survival rate. This has been attributed, to some extent, to EOC’s high recurrence rate and resistance to currently available platinum-based chemotherapeutic treatment methods. Multiple groups have studied and reported the effect of chemotherapeutic agents on various EOC 3D in vitro models. However, there are very few studies wherein a direct comparative study has been carried out between the different in vitro 3D models of EOC and the effect of chemotherapy within them. Herein, we report, for the first time, a direct comprehensive systematic comparative study of three different 3D in vitro platforms, namely (i) spheroids, (ii) synthetic PeptiGels/hydrogels of various chemical configurations and (iii) polymeric scaffolds with coatings of various extracellular matrices (ECMs) on the cell growth and response to the chemotherapeutic (Cisplatin) for ovary-derived (A2780) and metastatic (SK-OV-3) EOC cell lines. We report that all three 3D models are able to support the growth of EOC, but for different time periods (varying from 7 days to 4 weeks). We have also reported that chemoresistance to Cisplatin, in vitro, observed especially for metastatic EOC cells, is platform-dependent, in terms of both the structural and biochemical composition of the model/platform. Our study highlights the importance of selecting an appropriate 3D platform for in vitro tumour model development. We have demonstrated that the selection of the best platform for producing in vitro tumour models depends on the cancer/cell type, the experimental time period and the application for which the model is intended.

Biocompatible micro tweezers for 3D hydrogel organoid array mechanical characterization

This study presents novel biocompatible Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based micromechanical tweezers (μTweezers) capable of the stiffness characterization and manipulation of hydrogel-based organoids. The system showed great potential for complementing established mechanical characterization methods such as Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), parallel plate compression (PPC), and nanoindentation, while significantly reducing the volume of valuable hydrogels used for testing. We achieved a volume reduction of ~0.22 μl/sample using the μTweezers vs. ~157 μl/sample using the PPC, while targeting high-throughput measurement of widely adopted micro-mesoscale (a few hundred μm-1500 μm) 3D cell cultures. The μTweezers applied and measured nano-millinewton forces through cantilever' deflection with high linearity and tunability for different applications; the assembly is compatible with typical inverted optical microscopes and fit on standard tissue culture Petri dishes, allowing mechanical compression characterization of arrayed 3D hydrogel-based organoids in a high throughput manner. The average achievable output per group was 40 tests per hour, where 20 organoids and 20 reference images in one 35 mm petri dish were tested, illustrating efficient productivity to match the increasing demand on 3D organoids' applications. The changes in stiffness of collagen I hydrogel organoids in four conditions were measured, with ovarian cancer cells (SKOV3) or without (control). The Young's modulus of the control group (Control-day 0, E = 407± 146, n = 4) measured by PPC was used as a reference modulus, where the relative elastic compressive modulus of the other groups based on the stiffness measurements was also calculated (control-day 0, E = 407 Pa), (SKOV3-day 0, E = 318 Pa), (control-day 5, E = 528 Pa), and (SKOV3-day 5, E = 376 Pa). The SKOV3-embedded hydrogel-based organoids had more shrinkage and lowered moduli on day 0 and day 5 than controls, consistently, while SKOV3 embedded organoids increased in stiffness in a similar trend to the collagen I control from day 0 to day 5. The proposed method can contribute to the biomedical, biochemical, and regenerative engineering fields, where bulk mechanical characterization is of interest. The μTweezers will also provide attractive design and application concepts to soft membrane-micro 3D robotics, sensors, and actuators.

OUP accepted manuscript

BACKGROUND

To provide the optimal milieu for implantation and fetal development, the female reproductive system must orchestrate uterine dynamics with the appropriate hormones produced by the ovaries. Mature oocytes may be fertilized in the fallopian tubes, and the resulting zygote is transported toward the uterus, where it can implant and continue developing. The cervix acts as a physical barrier to protect the fetus throughout pregnancy, and the vagina acts as a birth canal (involving uterine and cervix mechanisms) and facilitates copulation. Fertility can be compromised by pathologies that affect any of these organs or processes, and therefore, being able to accurately model them or restore their function is of paramount importance in applied and translational research. However, innate differences in human and animal model reproductive tracts, and the static nature of 2D cell/tissue culture techniques, necessitate continued research and development of dynamic and more complex in vitro platforms, ex vivo approaches and in vivo therapies to study and support reproductive biology. To meet this need, bioengineering is propelling the research on female reproduction into a new dimension through a wide range of potential applications and preclinical models, and the burgeoning number and variety of studies makes for a rapidly changing state of the field.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

This review aims to summarize the mounting evidence on bioengineering strategies, platforms and therapies currently available and under development in the context of female reproductive medicine, in order to further understand female reproductive biology and provide new options for fertility restoration. Specifically, techniques used in, or for, the uterus (endometrium and myometrium), ovary, fallopian tubes, cervix and vagina will be discussed.

SEARCH METHODS

A systematic search of full-text articles available in PubMed and Embase databases was conducted to identify relevant studies published between January 2000 and September 2021. The search terms included: bioengineering, reproduction, artificial, biomaterial, microfluidic, bioprinting, organoid, hydrogel, scaffold, uterus, endometrium, ovary, fallopian tubes, oviduct, cervix, vagina, endometriosis, adenomyosis, uterine fibroids, chlamydia, Asherman’s syndrome, intrauterine adhesions, uterine polyps, polycystic ovary syndrome and primary ovarian insufficiency. Additional studies were identified by manually searching the references of the selected articles and of complementary reviews. Eligibility criteria included original, rigorous and accessible peer-reviewed work, published in English, on female reproductive bioengineering techniques in preclinical (in vitro/in vivo/ex vivo) and/or clinical testing phases.

OUTCOMES

Out of the 10 390 records identified, 312 studies were included for systematic review. Owing to inconsistencies in the study measurements and designs, the findings were assessed qualitatively rather than by meta-analysis. Hydrogels and scaffolds were commonly applied in various bioengineering-related studies of the female reproductive tract. Emerging technologies, such as organoids and bioprinting, offered personalized diagnoses and alternative treatment options, respectively. Promising microfluidic systems combining various bioengineering approaches have also shown translational value.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

The complexity of the molecular, endocrine and tissue-level interactions regulating female reproduction present challenges for bioengineering approaches to replace female reproductive organs. However, interdisciplinary work is providing valuable insight into the physicochemical properties necessary for reproductive biological processes to occur. Defining the landscape of reproductive bioengineering technologies currently available and under development for women can provide alternative models for toxicology/drug testing, ex vivo fertility options, clinical therapies and a basis for future organ regeneration studies.

Proteinaceous Hydrogels for Bioengineering Advanced 3D Tumor Models

The establishment of tumor microenvironment using biomimetic in vitro models that recapitulate key tumor hallmarks including the tumor supporting extracellular matrix (ECM) is in high demand for accelerating the discovery and preclinical validation of more effective anticancer therapeutics. To date, ECM-mimetic hydrogels have been widely explored for 3D in vitro disease modeling owing to their bioactive properties that can be further adapted to the biochemical and biophysical properties of native tumors. Gathering on this momentum, herein the current landscape of intrinsically bioactive protein and peptide hydrogels that have been employed for 3D tumor modeling are discussed. Initially, the importance of recreating such microenvironment and the main considerations for generating ECM-mimetic 3D hydrogel in vitro tumor models are showcased. A comprehensive discussion focusing protein, peptide, or hybrid ECM-mimetic platforms employed for modeling cancer cells/stroma cross-talk and for the preclinical evaluation of candidate anticancer therapies is also provided. Further development of tumor-tunable, proteinaceous or peptide 3D microtesting platforms with microenvironment-specific biophysical and biomolecular cues will contribute to better mimic the in vivo scenario, and improve the predictability of preclinical screening of generalized or personalized therapeutics.

Tumor Cell Behavior in Porous Hydrogels: Effect of Application Technique and Doxorubicin Treatment

The effect of porosity on diffusion characteristics of scaffolds and invasive capacity of MCF-7 and PC-3 tumor cells was studied for gelatin hydrogels. According to MTS test results, the efficiency of population of a macroporous cryogel by cells applied by different techniques increased in the following order: migration from the monolayer<surface adhesion<<injection. Tumor cells in the cryogel differed by the migration and aggregation activity; injection route ensured a more uniform and dense population. In the cryogel-based culture, the cytotoxic effect of doxorubicin was 3-lower than in monolayer culture, which can be explained by supporting effect of the scaffold on cell growth and clustering. The results are of interest for the creation of tumor models and grafts with controlled properties.

Organotypic 3D Models of the Ovarian Cancer Tumor Microenvironment

Ovarian cancer progression involves multifaceted and variable tumor microenvironments (TMEs), from the in situ carcinoma in the fallopian tube or ovary to dissemination into the peritoneal cavity as single cells or spheroids and attachment to the mesothelial-lined surfaces of the omentum, bowel, and abdominal wall. The TME comprises the tumor vasculature and lymphatics (including endothelial cells and pericytes), in addition to mesothelial cells, fibroblasts, immune cells, adipocytes and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. When generating 3D models of the ovarian cancer TME, researchers must incorporate the most relevant stromal components depending on the TME in question (e.g., early or late disease). Such complexity cannot be captured by monolayer 2D culture systems. Moreover, immortalized stromal cell lines, such as mesothelial or fibroblast cell lines, do not always behave the same as primary cells whose response in functional assays may vary from donor to donor; 3D models with primary stromal cells may have more physiological relevance than those using stromal cell lines. In the current review, we discuss the latest developments in organotypic 3D models of the ovarian cancer early metastatic microenvironment. Organotypic culture models comprise two or more interacting cell types from a particular tissue. We focus on organotypic 3D models that include at least one type of primary stromal cell type in an ECM background, such as collagen or fibronectin, plus ovarian cancer cells. We provide an overview of the two most comprehensive current models—a 3D model of the omental mesothelium and a microfluidic model. We describe the cellular and non-cellular components of the models, the incorporation of mechanical forces, and how the models have been adapted and utilized in functional assays. Finally, we review a number of 3D models that do not incorporate primary stromal cells and summarize how integration of current models may be the next essential step in tackling the complexity of the different ovarian cancer TMEs.

Dextran sulfate inhibition on human gastric cancer cells invasion, migration and epithelial-mesenchymal transformation

The objective of the present study was to observe the influence of dextran sulfate (DS) on the proliferation, invasion and migration of AGS, BGC-23, GES-1, MGC-803 and SGC-7901 cells. Additionally, the possible inhibition mechanism of DS on BGC-823 cells epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) was explored. The cells in the control and experimental group were treated with PBS and DS respectively. The effect of DS on the invasion and migration of these five types of cells were investigated using Transwell invasion and migration assays. Immunocytochemistry, western blotting and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assays were used to measure gene and protein expression of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1-a) and EMT associated factors [Twist, E-cadherin, N-cadherin and β-catenin] of BGC-823 cells. According to the results of CCK-8, DS significantly decreased the proliferation of AGS, SGC-7901 and BGC-823 cells to different extents, but there were no notable differences for MGC-803 cells. Transwell migration and invasion results demonstrated that, compared with the control group, DS reduced the migration and invasion of every types of cells to different extents, and the inhibition to BGC-823 cells invasion is the most notably. Immunofluorescence, RT-PCR and western blot analysis results indicated that HIF-1α, Twist and N-cad expressions levels had different degrees of reduction in the experimental group following DS treatment; however, the expression level of E-cad had increased. In conclusion, DS inhibited the proliferation of AGS, BGC-823, SGC-7901 and GES-1 cells, the inhibition degree may be associated with the differentiation degree of every cancer cell, the higher the differentiation degree, the stronger the inhibition. DS inhibited migration and invasion of the five types of gastric cancer cells in different degree. DS may inhibit EMT of BGC-823 by inhibiting Wnt signaling.

Agarose-based biomaterials for tissue engineering

Agarose is a natural polysaccharide polymer having unique characteristics that give reason to consider it for tissue engineering applications. Special characteristics of agarose such as its excellent biocompatibility, thermo-reversible gelation behavior and physiochemical features support its use as a biomaterial for cell growth and/or controlled/localized drug delivery. The resemblance of this natural carbohydrate polymer to the extracellular matrix results in attractive features that bring about a strong interest in its usage in the field. The scope of this review is to summarize the extensive researches addressing agarose-based biomaterials in order to provide an in-depth understanding of its tissue engineering-related applications.

OvAd1, a Novel, Potent, and Selective Chimeric Oncolytic Virus Developed for Ovarian Cancer by 3D-Directed Evolution

Effective therapeutics for ovarian cancer continue to be urgently needed, particularly for chemotherapy-resistant cases. Here we present both a 3D-Matrigel culture-based expansion of our directed evolution method for generation of oncolytic virotherapies and two promising ovarian-cancer targeted oncolytic viruses, OvAd1 and OvAd2. OvAd1 was developed using Matrigel cell cultures, whereas OvAd2 was developed in parallel using traditional monolayer tissue culture methods. Both viruses are potent against a panel of platinum-resistant ovarian cancer cell lines and are attenuated on normal cells in vitro, resulting in therapeutic windows of ∼200-fold. We observed two benefits of the use of Matrigel-based cultures for directed evolution of these oncolytics: (1) use of Matrigel generated a bioselected pool that was more strongly attenuated on normal cells while retaining its potency against ovarian cancer cells, and (2) in an ovarian carcinomatosis model, the Matrigel-derived virus OvAd1 suppressed all tumor growth while the non-Matrigel-derived virus was 50% effective. Neither virus stimulated formation of peritoneal adhesions as seen for Ad5-based therapies. Consequently, these viruses are novel candidates for development as new effective treatments for aggressive ovarian cancer.