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Fois MG, van Griensven M, Giselbrecht S, Habibović P, Truckenmüller RK, Tahmasebi Birgani ZN. Mini-bones: miniaturized bone in vitro models. Trends Biotechnol 2024; 42:910-928. [PMID: 38493050 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2024.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024]
Abstract
In bone tissue engineering (TE) and regeneration, miniaturized, (sub)millimeter-sized bone models have become a popular trend since they bring about physiological biomimicry, precise orchestration of concurrent stimuli, and compatibility with high-throughput setups and high-content imaging. They also allow efficient use of cells, reagents, materials, and energy. In this review, we describe the state of the art of miniaturized in vitro bone models, or 'mini-bones', describing these models based on their characteristics of (multi)cellularity and engineered extracellular matrix (ECM), and elaborating on miniaturization approaches and fabrication techniques. We analyze the performance of 'mini-bone' models according to their applications for studying basic bone biology or as regeneration models, disease models, and screening platforms, and provide an outlook on future trends, challenges, and opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Gabriella Fois
- MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200, MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Martijn van Griensven
- MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200, MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Stefan Giselbrecht
- MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200, MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Pamela Habibović
- MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200, MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Roman K Truckenmüller
- MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200, MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - Zeinab Niloofar Tahmasebi Birgani
- MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200, MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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2
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Johnson N, Filler AC, Sethi A, Smith LR, Leach JK. Skeletal Muscle Spheroids as Building Blocks for Engineered Muscle Tissue. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2024; 10:497-506. [PMID: 38113146 PMCID: PMC10777344 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.3c01078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Spheroids exhibit enhanced cell-cell interactions that facilitate improved survival and mimic the physiological cellular environment in vivo. Cell spheroids have been successfully used as building blocks for engineered tissues, yet the viability of this approach with skeletal muscle spheroids is poorly understood, particularly when incorporated into three-dimensional (3D) constructs. Bioprinting is a promising strategy to recapitulate the hierarchical organization of native tissue that is fundamental to its function. However, the influence of bioprinting on skeletal muscle cell spheroids and their function are yet to be interrogated. Using C2C12 mouse myoblasts and primary bovine muscle stem cells (MuSCs), we characterized spheroid formation as a function of duration and cell seeding density. We then investigated the potential of skeletal muscle spheroids entrapped in alginate bioink as tissue building blocks for bioprinting myogenic tissue. Both C2C12 and primary bovine MuSCs formed spheroids of similar sizes and remained viable after bioprinting. Spheroids of both cell types fused into larger tissue clusters over time within alginate and exhibited tissue formation comparable to monodisperse cells. Compared to monodisperse cells in alginate gels, C2C12 spheroids exhibited greater MyHC expression after 2 weeks, while cells within bovine MuSC spheroids displayed increased cell spreading. Both monodisperse and MuSC spheroids exhibited increased expression of genes denoting mid- and late-stage myogenic differentiation. Together, these data suggest that skeletal muscle spheroids have the potential for generating myogenic tissue via 3D bioprinting and reveal areas of research that could enhance myogenesis and myogenic differentiation in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Johnson
- Department
of Orthopaedic Surgery, UC Davis Health, Sacramento, California 95817, United States
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, UC Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Andrea C. Filler
- Department
of Orthopaedic Surgery, UC Davis Health, Sacramento, California 95817, United States
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, UC Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Akash Sethi
- Department
of Molecular and Cellular Biology, UC Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Lucas R. Smith
- Department
of Neurobiology, Physiology and Behavior, UC Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - J. Kent Leach
- Department
of Orthopaedic Surgery, UC Davis Health, Sacramento, California 95817, United States
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, UC Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
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3
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Lowen JM, Bond GC, Griffin KH, Shimamoto NK, Thai VL, Leach JK. Multisized Photoannealable Microgels Regulate Cell Spreading, Aggregation, and Macrophage Phenotype through Microporous Void Space. Adv Healthc Mater 2023; 12:e2202239. [PMID: 36719946 PMCID: PMC10198868 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202202239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Microgels are an emerging platform for in vitro models and guiding cell fate due to their inherent porosity and tunability. This work describes a light-based technique for rapidly annealing microgels across a range of diameters. Utilizing 8-arm poly(ethylene) glycol-vinyl sulfone, the number of arms available for crosslinking, functionalization, and annealing is stoichiometrically controlled. Small and large microgels are fabricated to explore how microgel diameter impacts void space and the role of porosity on cell spreading, cell aggregation, and macrophage polarization. Mesenchymal stromal cells spread rapidly in both formulations, yet the smaller microgels permit a higher cell density. When seeded with macrophages, the smaller microgels promote an M1 phenotype, while larger microgels promote an M2 phenotype. As another application, the inherent porosity of annealed microgels is leveraged to induce cell aggregation. Finally, the microgels are implanted to examine how different size microgels influence endogenous cell invasion and macrophage polarization. The use of ultraviolet light allows for microgels to be noninvasively injected into a desired mold or wound defect before annealing, and microgels of different properties combined to create a heterogeneous scaffold. This approach is clinically relevant given its tunability and fast annealing time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy M. Lowen
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, UC Davis Health, Sacramento, CA 95817
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616
| | - Gabriella C. Bond
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, UC Davis Health, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - Katherine H. Griffin
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, UC Davis Health, Sacramento, CA 95817
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | | | - Victoria L. Thai
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, UC Davis Health, Sacramento, CA 95817
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616
| | - J. Kent Leach
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, UC Davis Health, Sacramento, CA 95817
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616
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Tartagni O, Borók A, Mensà E, Bonyár A, Monti B, Hofkens J, Porcelli AM, Zuccheri G. Microstructured soft devices for the growth and analysis of populations of homogenous multicellular tumor spheroids. Cell Mol Life Sci 2023; 80:93. [PMID: 36929461 PMCID: PMC10020259 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-023-04748-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Multicellular tumor spheroids are rapidly emerging as an improved in vitro model with respect to more traditional 2D culturing. Microwell culturing is a simple and accessible method for generating a large number of uniformly sized spheroids, but commercially available systems often do not enable researchers to perform complete culturing and analysis pipelines and the mechanical properties of their culture environment are not commonly matching those of the target tissue. We herein report a simple method to obtain custom-designed self-built microwell arrays made of polydimethylsiloxane or agarose for uniform 3D cell structure generation. Such materials can provide an environment of tunable mechanical flexibility. We developed protocols to culture a variety of cancer and non-cancer cell lines in such devices and to perform molecular and imaging characterizations of the spheroid growth, viability, and response to pharmacological treatments. Hundreds of tumor spheroids grow (in scaffolded or scaffold-free conditions) at homogeneous rates and can be harvested at will. Microscopy imaging can be performed in situ during or at the end of the culture. Fluorescence (confocal) microscopy can be performed after in situ staining while retaining the geographic arrangement of spheroids in the plate wells. This platform can enable statistically robust investigations on cancer biology and screening of drug treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ottavia Tartagni
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Via San Donato, 19/2, 40127, Bologna, Italy
| | - Alexandra Borók
- Department of Electronics Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Emanuela Mensà
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Via San Donato, 19/2, 40127, Bologna, Italy
| | - Attila Bonyár
- Department of Electronics Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Barbara Monti
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Via San Donato, 19/2, 40127, Bologna, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Health Sciences and Technologies, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Johan Hofkens
- Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven, 3001, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anna Maria Porcelli
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Via San Donato, 19/2, 40127, Bologna, Italy
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Health Sciences and Technologies, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giampaolo Zuccheri
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Via San Donato, 19/2, 40127, Bologna, Italy.
- Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Health Sciences and Technologies, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.
- S3 Center, Institute of Nanoscience, Italian National Research Council, Modena, Italy.
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5
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Microfabrication methods for 3D spheroids formation and their application in biomedical engineering. KOREAN J CHEM ENG 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s11814-022-1327-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Schot M, Araújo-Gomes N, van Loo B, Kamperman T, Leijten J. Scalable fabrication, compartmentalization and applications of living microtissues. Bioact Mater 2023; 19:392-405. [PMID: 35574053 PMCID: PMC9062422 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2022.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
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Gonzalez-Fernandez T, Tenorio AJ, Saiz AM, Leach JK. Engineered Cell-Secreted Extracellular Matrix Modulates Cell Spheroid Mechanosensing and Amplifies Their Response to Inductive Cues for the Formation of Mineralized Tissues. Adv Healthc Mater 2022; 11:e2102337. [PMID: 34968011 PMCID: PMC9117430 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202102337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The clinical translation of mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC)-based therapies remains challenging due to rapid cell death and poor control over cell behavior. Compared to monodisperse cells, the aggregation of MSCs into spheroids increases their tissue-forming potential by promoting cell-cell interactions. However, MSCs initially lack engagement with an endogenous extracellular matrix (ECM) when formed into spheroids. Previously the instructive nature of an engineered, cell-secreted ECM is demonstrated to promote survival and differentiation of adherent MSCs. Herein, it is hypothesized that the incorporation of this cell-secreted ECM during spheroid aggregation would enhance MSC osteogenic potential by promoting cell-matrix and cell-cell interactions. ECM-loaded spheroids contained higher collagen and glycosaminoglycan content, and MSCs exhibited increased mechanosensitivity to ECM through Yes-associated protein (YAP) activation via integrin α2β1 binding. ECM-loaded spheroids sustained greater MSC viability and proliferation and are more responsive to soluble cues for lineage-specific differentiation than spheroids without ECM or loaded with collagen. The encapsulation of ECM-loaded spheroids in instructive alginate gels resulted in spheroid fusion and enhanced osteogenic differentiation. These results highlight the clinical potential of ECM-loaded spheroids as building blocks for the repair of musculoskeletal tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - A. J. Tenorio
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616
| | - A. M. Saiz
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, UC Davis Health, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - J. K. Leach
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, UC Davis Health, Sacramento, CA 95817
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616
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Su T, Xu M, Lu F, Chang Q. Adipogenesis or osteogenesis: destiny decision made by mechanical properties of biomaterials. RSC Adv 2022; 12:24501-24510. [PMID: 36128379 PMCID: PMC9425444 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra02841g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Regenerative medicine affords an effective approach for restoring defect-associated diseases, and biomaterials play a pivotal role as cell niches to support the cell behavior and decide the destiny of cell differentiation. Except for chemical inducers, mechanical properties such as stiffness, pore size and topography of biomaterials play a crucial role in the regulation of cell behaviors and functions. Stiffness may determine the adipogenesis or osteogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) via the translocation of yes-associated protein (YAP) and the transcriptional coactivator with a PDZ-binding motif (TAZ). External forces transmit through cytoskeleton reorientation to assist nuclear deformation and molecule transport, meanwhile, signal pathways including the Hippo, FAK/RhoA/ROCK, and Wnt/β-catenin have been evidenced to participate in the mechanotransduction. Different pore sizes not only tailor the scaffold stiffness but also conform to the requirements of cell migration and vessels in-growth. Topography guides cell geometry along with mobility and determines the cell fate ascribed to micro/nano-scale contact. Herein, we highlight the recent progress in exploring the regulation mechanism by the physical properties of biomaterials, which might lead to more innovative regenerative strategies for adipose or bone tissue repair. Regenerative medicine affords an effective approach for restoring defect-associated diseases, and biomaterials play a pivotal role as cell niches to support the cell behavior and decide the destiny of cell differentiation.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Su
- Department of Plastic and Cosmetic Surgery, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 510515, China
| | - Mimi Xu
- Department of Plastic and Cosmetic Surgery, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 510515, China
| | - Feng Lu
- Department of Plastic and Cosmetic Surgery, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 510515, China
| | - Qiang Chang
- Department of Plastic and Cosmetic Surgery, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, 510515, China
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Zahn I, Braun T, Gögele C, Schulze-Tanzil G. Minispheroids as a Tool for Ligament Tissue Engineering: Do the Self-Assembly Techniques and Spheroid Dimensions Influence the Cruciate Ligamentocyte Phenotype? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:11011. [PMID: 34681672 PMCID: PMC8537246 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222011011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Spheroid culture might stabilize the ligamentocyte phenotype. Therefore, the phenotype of lapine cruciate ligamentocyte (L-CLs) minispheroids prepared either by hanging drop (HD) method or by using a novel spheroid plate (SP) and the option of methyl cellulose (MC) for tuning spheroid formation was tested. A total of 250 and 1000 L-CLs per spheroid were seeded as HDs or on an SP before performing cell viability assay, morphometry, gene expression (qRT-PCR) and protein immunolocalization after 7 (HD/SP) and 14 (SP) days. Stable and viable spheroids of both sizes could be produced with both methods, but more rapidly with SP. MC accelerated the formation of round spheroids (HD). Their circular areas decreased significantly during culturing. After 7 days, the diameters of HD-derived spheroids were significantly larger compared to those harvested from the SP, with a tendency of lower circularity suggesting an ellipsoid shape. Gene expression of decorin increased significantly after 7 days (HD, similar trend in SP), tenascin C tended to increase after 7 (HD/SP) and 14 days (SP), whereas collagen type 1 decreased (HD/SP) compared to the monolayer control. The cruciate ligament extracellular matrix components could be localized in all mini-spheroids, confirming their conserved expression profile and their suitability for ligament tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Zahn
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg and Salzburg, Prof. Ernst Nathan Str.1, 90419 Nuremberg, Germany; (I.Z.); (T.B.); (C.G.)
- Institute of Functional and Clinical Anatomy, Friedrich Alexander University, Erlangen-Nuremberg, Universitätsstraße 19, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Nuremberg Institute of Technology Georg Simon Ohm, Keßlerplatz 12, 90489 Nuremberg, Germany
| | - Tobias Braun
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg and Salzburg, Prof. Ernst Nathan Str.1, 90419 Nuremberg, Germany; (I.Z.); (T.B.); (C.G.)
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Nuremberg Institute of Technology Georg Simon Ohm, Keßlerplatz 12, 90489 Nuremberg, Germany
- Department of Cardiac Surgery (Cardiovascular Center), Klinikum Nürnberg Süd, Breslauer Str. 201, 90471 Nuremberg, Germany
| | - Clemens Gögele
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg and Salzburg, Prof. Ernst Nathan Str.1, 90419 Nuremberg, Germany; (I.Z.); (T.B.); (C.G.)
- Department of Biosciences, Paris Lodron University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Gundula Schulze-Tanzil
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg and Salzburg, Prof. Ernst Nathan Str.1, 90419 Nuremberg, Germany; (I.Z.); (T.B.); (C.G.)
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Three-Dimensional Spheroids as In Vitro Preclinical Models for Cancer Research. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12121186. [PMID: 33291351 PMCID: PMC7762220 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12121186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Most cancer biologists still rely on conventional two-dimensional (2D) monolayer culture techniques to test in vitro anti-tumor drugs prior to in vivo testing. However, the vast majority of promising preclinical drugs have no or weak efficacy in real patients with tumors, thereby delaying the discovery of successful therapeutics. This is because 2D culture lacks cell–cell contacts and natural tumor microenvironment, important in tumor signaling and drug response, thereby resulting in a reduced malignant phenotype compared to the real tumor. In this sense, three-dimensional (3D) cultures of cancer cells that better recapitulate in vivo cell environments emerged as scientifically accurate and low cost cancer models for preclinical screening and testing of new drug candidates before moving to expensive and time-consuming animal models. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of 3D tumor systems and highlight the strategies for spheroid construction and evaluation tools of targeted therapies, focusing on their applicability in cancer research. Examples of the applicability of 3D culture for the evaluation of the therapeutic efficacy of nanomedicines are discussed.
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