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Ren H, Lan Q, Zhou S, Lyu Y, Yu Y, Zhou J, Mo W, Lu H. Coupling thermotolerance and high production of recombinant protein by CYR1 N1546K mutation via cAMP signaling cascades. Commun Biol 2024; 7:627. [PMID: 38789513 PMCID: PMC11126729 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06341-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
In recombinant protein-producing yeast strains, cells experience high production-related stresses similar to high temperatures. It is possible to increase recombinant protein production by enhancing thermotolerance, but few studies have focused on this topic. Here we aim to identify cellular regulators that can simultaneously activate thermotolerance and high yield of recombinant protein. Through screening at 46 °C, a heat-resistant Kluyveromyces marxianus (K. marxianus) strain FDHY23 is isolated. It also exhibits enhanced recombinant protein productivity at both 30 °C and high temperatures. The CYR1N1546K mutation is identified as responsible for FDHY23's improved phenotype, characterized by weakened adenylate cyclase activity and reduced cAMP production. Introducing this mutation into the wild-type strain greatly enhances both thermotolerance and recombinant protein yields. RNA-seq analysis reveals that under high temperature and recombinant protein production conditions, CYR1 mutation-induced reduction in cAMP levels can stimulate cells to improve its energy supply system and optimize material synthesis, meanwhile enhance stress resistance, based on the altered cAMP signaling cascades. Our study provides CYR1 mutation as a novel target to overcome the bottleneck in achieving high production of recombinant proteins under high temperature conditions, and also offers a convenient approach for high-throughput screening of recombinant proteins with high yields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyan Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Microorganisms, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Qing Lan
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Microorganisms, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Shihao Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Microorganisms, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Yilin Lyu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Microorganisms, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Yao Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Microorganisms, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Jungang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Microorganisms, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Wenjuan Mo
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China.
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Microorganisms, Shanghai, 200438, China.
| | - Hong Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China.
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Microorganisms, Shanghai, 200438, China.
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Hu X, Zhou Y, Liu R, Wang J, Guo L, Huang X, Li J, Yan Y, Liu F, Li X, Tan X, Luo Y, Wang P, Zhou S. Protein disulfide isomerase 1 is required for RodA assembling-based conidial hydrophobicity of Aspergillus fumigatus. Appl Environ Microbiol 2024; 90:e0126023. [PMID: 38501925 PMCID: PMC11022560 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01260-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
The hydrophobic layer of Aspergillus conidia, composed of RodA, plays a crucial role in conidia transfer and immune evasion. It self-assembles into hydrophobic rodlets through intramolecular disulfide bonds. However, the secretory process of RodA and its regulatory elements remain unknown. Since protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) is essential for the secretion of many disulfide-bonded proteins, we investigated whether PDI is also involved in RodA secretion and assembly. By gene knockout and phenotypic analysis, we found that Pdi1, one of the four PDI-related proteins of Aspergillus fumigatus, determines the hydrophobicity and integrity of the rodlet layer of the conidia. Preservation of the thioredoxin-active domain of Pdi1 was sufficient to maintain conidial hydrophobicity, suggesting that Pdi1 mediates RodA assembly through its disulfide isomerase activity. In the absence of Pdi1, the disulfide mismatch of RodA in conidia may prevent its delivery from the inner to the outer layer of the cell wall for rodlet assembly. This was demonstrated using a strain expressing a key cysteine-mutated RodA. The dormant conidia of the Pdi1-deficient strain (Δpdi) elicited an immune response, suggesting that the defective conidia surface in the absence of Pdi1 exposes internal immunogenic sources. In conclusion, Pdi1 ensures the correct folding of RodA in the inner layer of conidia, facilitating its secretion into the outer layer of the cell wall and allowing self-assembly of the hydrophobic layer. This study has identified a regulatory element for conidia rodlet assembly.IMPORTANCEAspergillus fumigatus is the major cause of invasive aspergillosis, which is mainly transmitted by the inhalation of conidia. The spread of conidia is largely dependent on their hydrophobicity, which is primarily attributed to the self-assembly of the hydrophobic protein RodA on the cell wall. However, the mechanisms underlying RodA secretion and transport to the outermost layer of the cell wall are still unclear. Our study identified a critical role for Pdi1, a fungal protein disulfide isomerase found in regulating RodA secretion and assembly. Inhibition of Pdi1 prevents the formation of correct S-S bonds in the inner RodA, creating a barrier to RodA delivery and resulting in a defective hydrophobic layer. Our findings provided insight into the formation of the conidial hydrophobic layer and suggested potential drug targets to inhibit A. fumigatus infections by limiting conidial dispersal and altering their immune inertia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaotao Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Yao Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Renning Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Lingyan Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaofei Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Jingyi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Yunfeng Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Feiyun Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Xueying Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Xinyu Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Yiqing Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping Wang
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, Saint Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Shengmin Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
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Wu P, Mo W, Tian T, Song K, Lyu Y, Ren H, Zhou J, Yu Y, Lu H. Transfer of disulfide bond formation modules via yeast artificial chromosomes promotes the expression of heterologous proteins in Kluyveromyces marxianus. MLIFE 2024; 3:129-142. [PMID: 38827505 PMCID: PMC11139206 DOI: 10.1002/mlf2.12115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Kluyveromyces marxianus is a food-safe yeast with great potential for producing heterologous proteins. Improving the yield in K. marxianus remains a challenge and incorporating large-scale functional modules poses a technical obstacle in engineering. To address these issues, linear and circular yeast artificial chromosomes of K. marxianus (KmYACs) were constructed and loaded with disulfide bond formation modules from Pichia pastoris or K. marxianus. These modules contained up to seven genes with a maximum size of 15 kb. KmYACs carried telomeres either from K. marxianus or Tetrahymena. KmYACs were transferred successfully into K. marxianus and stably propagated without affecting the normal growth of the host, regardless of the type of telomeres and configurations of KmYACs. KmYACs increased the overall expression levels of disulfide bond formation genes and significantly enhanced the yield of various heterologous proteins. In high-density fermentation, the use of KmYACs resulted in a glucoamylase yield of 16.8 g/l, the highest reported level to date in K. marxianus. Transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis of cells containing KmYACs suggested increased flavin adenine dinucleotide biosynthesis, enhanced flux entering the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and a preferred demand for lysine and arginine as features of cells overexpressing heterologous proteins. Consistently, supplementing lysine or arginine further improved the yield. Therefore, KmYAC provides a powerful platform for manipulating large modules with enormous potential for industrial applications and fundamental research. Transferring the disulfide bond formation module via YACs proves to be an efficient strategy for improving the yield of heterologous proteins, and this strategy may be applied to optimize other microbial cell factories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pingping Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life SciencesFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial MicroorganismsShanghaiChina
| | - Wenjuan Mo
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life SciencesFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial MicroorganismsShanghaiChina
| | - Tian Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life SciencesFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial MicroorganismsShanghaiChina
| | - Kunfeng Song
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life SciencesFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial MicroorganismsShanghaiChina
| | - Yilin Lyu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life SciencesFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial MicroorganismsShanghaiChina
| | - Haiyan Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life SciencesFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial MicroorganismsShanghaiChina
| | - Jungang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life SciencesFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial MicroorganismsShanghaiChina
| | - Yao Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life SciencesFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial MicroorganismsShanghaiChina
| | - Hong Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life SciencesFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial MicroorganismsShanghaiChina
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Yu DS, Outram MA, Crean E, Smith A, Sung YC, Darma R, Sun X, Ma L, Jones DA, Solomon PS, Williams SJ. Optimized Production of Disulfide-Bonded Fungal Effectors in Escherichia coli Using CyDisCo and FunCyDisCo Coexpression Approaches. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2022; 35:109-118. [PMID: 34672679 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-08-21-0218-ta] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Effectors are a key part of the arsenal of plant-pathogenic fungi and promote pathogen virulence and disease. Effectors typically lack sequence similarity to proteins with known functional domains and motifs, limiting our ability to predict their functions and understand how they are recognized by plant hosts. As a result, cross-disciplinary approaches involving structural biology and protein biochemistry are often required to decipher and better characterize effector function. These approaches are reliant on high yields of relatively pure protein, which often requires protein production using a heterologous expression system. For some effectors, establishing an efficient production system can be difficult, particularly those that require multiple disulfide bonds to achieve their naturally folded structure. Here, we describe the use of a coexpression system within the heterologous host Escherichia coli, termed CyDisCo (cytoplasmic disulfide bond formation in E. coli) to produce disulfide bonded fungal effectors. We demonstrate that CyDisCo and a naturalized coexpression approach termed FunCyDisCo (Fungi CyDisCo) can significantly improve the production yields of numerous disulfide-bonded effectors from diverse fungal pathogens. The ability to produce large quantities of functional recombinant protein has facilitated functional studies and crystallization of several of these reported fungal effectors. We suggest this approach could be broadly useful in the investigation of the function and recognition of a broad range of disulfide bond-containing effectors.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S Yu
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Megan A Outram
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Emma Crean
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Ashley Smith
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Yi-Chang Sung
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Reynaldi Darma
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Xizhe Sun
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
- Key Laboratory of Hebei Province for Plant Physiology and Molecular Pathology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Agriculture University, Baoding, China
| | - Lisong Ma
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - David A Jones
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Peter S Solomon
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Simon J Williams
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
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Bueno E, Sit B, Waldor MK, Cava F. Genetic Dissection of the Fermentative and Respiratory Contributions Supporting Vibrio cholerae Hypoxic Growth. J Bacteriol 2020; 202:e00243-20. [PMID: 32631948 PMCID: PMC7685561 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00243-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Both fermentative and respiratory processes contribute to bacterial metabolic adaptations to low oxygen tension (hypoxia). In the absence of O2 as a respiratory electron sink, many bacteria utilize alternative electron acceptors, such as nitrate (NO3-). During canonical NO3- respiration, NO3- is reduced in a stepwise manner to N2 by a dedicated set of reductases. Vibrio cholerae, the etiological agent of cholera, requires only a single periplasmic NO3- reductase (NapA) to undergo NO3- respiration, suggesting that the pathogen possesses a noncanonical NO3- respiratory chain. In this study, we used complementary transposon-based screens to identify genetic determinants of general hypoxic growth and NO3- respiration in V. cholerae We found that while the V. cholerae NO3- respiratory chain is primarily composed of homologues of established NO3- respiratory genes, it also includes components previously unlinked to this process, such as the Na+-NADH dehydrogenase Nqr. The ethanol-generating enzyme AdhE was shown to be the principal fermentative branch required during hypoxic growth in V. cholerae Relative to single adhE or napA mutant strains, a V. cholerae strain lacking both genes exhibited severely impaired hypoxic growth in vitro and in vivo Our findings reveal the genetic basis of a specific interaction between disparate energy production pathways that supports pathogen fitness under shifting conditions. Such metabolic specializations in V. cholerae and other pathogens are potential targets for antimicrobial interventions.IMPORTANCE Bacteria reprogram their metabolism in environments with low oxygen levels (hypoxia). Typically, this occurs via regulation of two major, but largely independent, metabolic pathways: fermentation and respiration. In this study, we found that the diarrheal pathogen Vibrio cholerae has a respiratory chain for NO3- that consists largely of components found in other NO3- respiratory systems but also contains several proteins not previously linked to this process. Both AdhE-dependent fermentation and NO3- respiration were required for efficient pathogen growth under both laboratory conditions and in an animal infection model. These observations provide a specific example of fermentative respiratory interactions and identify metabolic vulnerabilities that may be targetable for new antimicrobial agents in V. cholerae and related pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilio Bueno
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden, Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå Center for Microbial Research, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Brandon Sit
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Matthew K Waldor
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Felipe Cava
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden, Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå Center for Microbial Research, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
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Roat P, Malviya BK, Hada S, Chechani B, Kumar M, Yadav DK, Kumari N. Chlorophyll Catalysed Ultrafast Oxidation of Thiols in Water. ChemistrySelect 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202002011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Roat
- Department of ChemistryMohanlal Sukhadia University Udaipur India)- 313001
| | - Bhanwar K. Malviya
- Department of ChemistryMohanlal Sukhadia University Udaipur India)- 313001
| | - Sonal Hada
- Department of ChemistryMohanlal Sukhadia University Udaipur India)- 313001
| | - Bhawna Chechani
- Department of ChemistryMohanlal Sukhadia University Udaipur India)- 313001
| | - Mukesh Kumar
- Department of ChemistrySahu Jain College Najibabad- Bijnor India)- 246763
| | - Dinesh K. Yadav
- Department of ChemistryMohanlal Sukhadia University Udaipur India)- 313001
| | - Neetu Kumari
- Department of ChemistryMohanlal Sukhadia University Udaipur India)- 313001
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Johnson BD, Geldenhuys WJ, Hazlehurst LA. The Role of ERO1α in Modulating Cancer Progression and Immune Escape. JOURNAL OF CANCER IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 2:103-115. [PMID: 33615311 PMCID: PMC7894644 DOI: 10.33696/cancerimmunol.2.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum oxidoreductin-1 alpha (ERO1α) was originally shown to be an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) resident protein undergoing oxidative cycles in concert with protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) to promote proper protein folding and to maintain homeostasis within the ER. ERO1α belongs to the flavoprotein family containing a flavin adenine dinucleotide utilized in transferring of electrons during oxidation-reduction cycles. This family is used to maintain redox potentials and protein homeostasis within the ER. ERO1α's location and function has since been shown to exist beyond the ER. Originally thought to exist solely in the ER, it has since been found to exist in the golgi apparatus, as well as in exosomes purified from patient samples. Besides aiding in protein folding of transmembrane and secretory proteins in conjunction with PDI, ERO1α is also known for formation of de novo disulfide bridges. Public databases, such as the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and The Protein Atlas, reveal ERO1α as a poor prognostic marker in multiple disease settings. Recent evidence indicates that ERO1α expression in tumor cells is a critical determinant of metastasis. However, the impact of increased ERO1α expression in tumor cells extends into the tumor microenvironment. Secretory proteins requiring ERO1α expression for proper folding have been implicated as being involved in immune escape through promotion of upregulation of programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) and stimulation of polymorphonuclear myeloid derived suppressor cells (PMN-MDSC's) via secretion of granulocytic colony stimulating factor (G-CSF). Hereby, ERO1α plays a pivotal role in cancer progression and potentially immune escape; making ERO1α an emerging attractive putative target for the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Werner J. Geldenhuys
- WVU School of Pharmacy, Morgantown, WV, 25606, USA
- WVU Neuroscience Institute, Morgantown, WV, 25606, USA
| | - Lori A. Hazlehurst
- WVU Cancer Institute, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
- WVU School of Pharmacy, Morgantown, WV, 25606, USA
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Shrimal S, Cherepanova NA, Mandon EC, Venev SV, Gilmore R. Asparagine-linked glycosylation is not directly coupled to protein translocation across the endoplasmic reticulum in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Biol Cell 2019; 30:2626-2638. [PMID: 31433728 PMCID: PMC6761772 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e19-06-0330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Mammalian cells express two oligosaccharyltransferase complexes, STT3A and STT3B, that have distinct roles in N-linked glycosylation. The STT3A complex interacts directly with the protein translocation channel to mediate glycosylation of proteins using an N-terminal-to-C-terminal scanning mechanism. N-linked glycosylation of proteins in budding yeast has been assumed to be a cotranslational reaction. We have compared glycosylation of several glycoproteins in yeast and mammalian cells. Prosaposin, a cysteine-rich protein that contains STT3A-dependent glycosylation sites, is poorly glycosylated in yeast cells and STT3A-deficient human cells. In contrast, a protein with extreme C-terminal glycosylation sites was efficiently glycosylated in yeast by a posttranslocational mechanism. Posttranslocational glycosylation was also observed for carboxypeptidase Y-derived reporter proteins that contain closely spaced acceptor sites. A comparison of two recent protein structures indicates that the yeast OST is unable to interact with the yeast heptameric Sec complex via an evolutionarily conserved interface due to occupation of the OST binding site by the Sec63 protein. The efficiency of glycosylation in yeast is not enhanced for proteins that are translocated by the Sec61 or Ssh1 translocation channels instead of the Sec complex. We conclude that N-linked glycosylation and protein translocation are not directly coupled in yeast cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiteshu Shrimal
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Natalia A Cherepanova
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Elisabet C Mandon
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Sergey V Venev
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
| | - Reid Gilmore
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605
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Takagi T, Homma T, Fujii J, Shirasawa N, Yoriki H, Hotta Y, Higashimura Y, Mizushima K, Hirai Y, Katada K, Uchiyama K, Naito Y, Itoh Y. Elevated ER stress exacerbates dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in PRDX4-knockout mice. Free Radic Biol Med 2019; 134:153-164. [PMID: 30578917 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2018.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Peroxiredoxin 4 (PRDX4), a secretory protein that is preferentially retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), is encoded by a gene located on the X chromosome and highly expressed in colonic tissue. In this study, we investigated the role of PRDX4 by means of male PRDX4-knockout (PRDX4-/y) mice in the development of intestinal inflammation using a dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis model. MATERIALS AND METHODS Acute colitis was induced with DSS (2.5% in drinking water) in wild-type (WT) and PRDX4-/y male C57BL/6 mice. Histological and biochemical analyses were performed on the colonic tissues. RESULTS PRDX4 was mainly localized in the colonic epithelial cells in WT mice. The disease activity index (DAI) scores of PRDX4-/y mice were significantly higher compared to those of WT mice. Specifically, PRDX4-/y mice showed marked body weight loss and shortening of colon length compared to WT mice, whereas the myeloperoxidase levels were increased in PRDX4-/y compared to WT mice. In addition, the mRNA expression levels of TNF-α and IFN-γ were significantly higher in the colonic mucosa of PRDX4-/y compared to WT mice. Moreover, the levels of CHOP and activated caspase 3 were higher in the colonic tissues of PRDX4-/y compared to WT mice following treatment with DSS. The ER also showed greater expansion in PRDX4-/y than WT mice, which was consistent with severe ER stress under PRDX4 deficiency. CONCLUSION Our results demonstrated that the lack of PRDX4 aggravated the colonic mucosal damage induced by DSS. Because PRDX4 functions as an ER thiol oxidase as well as an antioxidant, DSS induced oxidative damage and ER stress to a greater degree in PRDX4-/y than WT mice. These findings suggest that PRDX4 may represent a novel therapeutic molecule in intestinal inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohisa Takagi
- Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan; Department for Medical Innovation and Translational Medical Science, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan.
| | - Takujiro Homma
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Yamagata University, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan
| | - Junichi Fujii
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Yamagata University, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Shirasawa
- Department of Rehabilitation, Faculty of Medical Science and Welfare, Tohoku Bunka Gakuen University, Sendai 981-8551, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Yoriki
- Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Yuma Hotta
- Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Yasuki Higashimura
- Department of Food Science, Ishikawa Prefectural University, Nonoichi 921-8836, Japan
| | - Katsura Mizushima
- Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Yasuko Hirai
- Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Katada
- Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Uchiyama
- Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Yuji Naito
- Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Yoshito Itoh
- Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
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10
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Matsuo Y, Hirota K. Transmembrane thioredoxin-related protein TMX1 is reversibly oxidized in response to protein accumulation in the endoplasmic reticulum. FEBS Open Bio 2017; 7:1768-1777. [PMID: 29123984 PMCID: PMC5666389 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.12319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Revised: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous secretory and membrane proteins undergo post‐translational modifications in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and the formation of disulfide bonds is a modification that is critical for proper protein folding. The mammalian ER contains a large family of oxidoreductases that are considered to catalyze thiol/disulfide exchange and ensure the maintenance of a redox environment within the ER. Disruption of ER homeostasis causes an accumulation of misfolded and unfolded proteins, a condition termed ER stress. Despite advances in our understanding of the ER stress response and its downstream signaling pathway, it remains unclear how ER redox balance is controlled and restored in the stressed ER. In this study, we determined that brefeldin A (BFA)‐induced protein accumulation in the ER triggers reversible oxidation of transmembrane thioredoxin‐related protein 1 (TMX1). Conversion of TMX1 to the oxidized state preceded the induction of immunoglobulin‐binding protein, a downstream marker of ER stress. Oxidized TMX1 reverted to the basal reduced state after BFA removal, and our results suggest that glutathione is involved in maintaining TMX1 in the reduced form. These findings provide evidence for a redox imbalance caused by protein overload, and demonstrate the existence of a pathway that helps restore ER homeostasis during poststress recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiyuki Matsuo
- Department of Human Stress Response Science Institute of Biomedical Science Kansai Medical University Japan
| | - Kiichi Hirota
- Department of Human Stress Response Science Institute of Biomedical Science Kansai Medical University Japan
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11
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Neal SE, Dabir DV, Wijaya J, Boon C, Koehler CM. Osm1 facilitates the transfer of electrons from Erv1 to fumarate in the redox-regulated import pathway in the mitochondrial intermembrane space. Mol Biol Cell 2017; 28:2773-2785. [PMID: 28814504 PMCID: PMC5638582 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e16-10-0712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2016] [Revised: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Osm1 transfers electrons from fumarate to succinate and functions with Mia40 and Erv1 in the redox-regulated import pathway for proteins that form disulfide bonds in the mitochondrial intermembrane space. Expression of Osm1 and cytochrome c is reciprocally regulated, indicating that the cell has strategies to coordinate expression of terminal electron acceptors. Prokaryotes have aerobic and anaerobic electron acceptors for oxidative folding of periplasmic proteins. The mitochondrial intermembrane space has an analogous pathway with the oxidoreductase Mia40 and sulfhydryl oxidase Erv1, termed the mitochondrial intermembrane space assembly (MIA) pathway. The aerobic electron acceptors include oxygen and cytochrome c, but an acceptor that can function under anaerobic conditions has not been identified. Here we show that the fumarate reductase Osm1, which facilitates electron transfer from fumarate to succinate, fills this gap as a new electron acceptor. In addition to microsomes, Osm1 localizes to the mitochondrial intermembrane space and assembles with Erv1 in a complex. In reconstitution studies with reduced Tim13, Mia40, and Erv1, the addition of Osm1 and fumarate completes the disulfide exchange pathway that results in Tim13 oxidation. From in vitro import assays, mitochondria lacking Osm1 display decreased import of MIA substrates, Cmc1 and Tim10. Comparative reconstitution assays support that the Osm1/fumarate couple accepts electrons with similar efficiency to cytochrome c and that the cell has strategies to coordinate expression of the terminal electron acceptors. Thus Osm1/fumarate is a new electron acceptor couple in the mitochondrial intermembrane space that seems to function in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonya E Neal
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - Deepa V Dabir
- Department of Biology, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, CA 90045
| | - Juwina Wijaya
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - Cennyana Boon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - Carla M Koehler
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095 .,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095.,Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095
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12
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Zhong X, He T, Prashad AS, Wang W, Cohen J, Ferguson D, Tam AS, Sousa E, Lin L, Tchistiakova L, Gatto S, D'Antona A, Luan YT, Ma W, Zollner R, Zhou J, Arve B, Somers W, Kriz R. Mechanistic understanding of the cysteine capping modifications of antibodies enables selective chemical engineering in live mammalian cells. J Biotechnol 2017; 248:48-58. [PMID: 28300660 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2017.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Protein modifications by intricate cellular machineries often redesign the structure and function of existing proteins to impact biological networks. Disulfide bond formation between cysteine (Cys) pairs is one of the most common modifications found in extracellularly-destined proteins, key to maintaining protein structure. Unpaired surface cysteines on secreted mammalian proteins are also frequently found disulfide-bonded with free Cys or glutathione (GSH) in circulation or culture, the mechanism for which remains unknown. Here we report that these so-called Cys-capping modifications take place outside mammalian cells, not in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) where oxidoreductase-mediated protein disulfide formation occurs. Unpaired surface cysteines of extracellularly-arrived proteins such as antibodies are uncapped upon secretion before undergoing disulfide exchange with cystine or oxidized GSH in culture medium. This observation has led to a feasible way to selectively modify the nucleophilic thiol side-chain of cell-surface or extracellular proteins in live mammalian cells, by applying electrophiles with a chemical handle directly into culture medium. These findings provide potentially an effective approach for improving therapeutic conjugates and probing biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaotian Zhong
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States.
| | - Tao He
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Amar S Prashad
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Pearl River, NY 10965,United States
| | | | - Justin Cohen
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Darren Ferguson
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Amy S Tam
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Eric Sousa
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Laura Lin
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Lioudmila Tchistiakova
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Scott Gatto
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Aaron D'Antona
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | | | - Weijun Ma
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Richard Zollner
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Jing Zhou
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Bo Arve
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Pearl River, NY 10965,United States
| | - Will Somers
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Ronald Kriz
- BioMedicine Design, Medicinal Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide R&D, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
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13
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Chen YH, Yuan FH, Bi HT, Zhang ZZ, Yue HT, Yuan K, Chen YG, Wen SP, He JG. Transcriptome analysis of the unfolded protein response in hemocytes of Litopenaeus vannamei. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 54:153-163. [PMID: 26497095 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2015.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Revised: 10/07/2015] [Accepted: 10/17/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In this study, Litopenaeus vannamei was injected with double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) against L. vannamei immunoglobulin heavy chain binding protein (LvBip) to activating UPR in the hemocytes, shirmps injected dsRNA against enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP) as control group. And genes expression in hemocytes of then were analyzed using Illumina Hiseq 2500 (PE100). By comparing the analyzed results, 1418 unigenes were significantly upregulated, and 596 unigenes were significantly down-regulated upon UPR. Analysis of the differentially expressed genes against known databases indicated that the distribution of gene pathways between the upregulated and down-regulated genes were substantially different. A total of 208 genes of UPR system were obtained, and 69 of them were differentially expressed between the two groups. Results also showed that L. vannamei UPR was involved in various metabolic processes, such as glycometabolism, lipid metabolism, amino acid metabolism, and nucleic acid metabolism. In addition, UPR was emgaged in immune-assicoated signaling pathways, such as NF-κB signaling pathway, NOD-like receptor signaling pathway, Hippo signaling pathway, p38 MAPK signaling pathway and Wnt signaling pathway in L. vannamei. These results improved our current understanding of the L. vannamei UPR, and highlighted its importance in cell homeostasis upon environmental stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Hong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering in Guangdong Province/School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Feng-Hua Yuan
- State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Hai-Tao Bi
- State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Ze-Zhi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Hai-Tao Yue
- State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Kai Yuan
- State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Yong-Gui Chen
- Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering in Guangdong Province/School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Shao-Ping Wen
- State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China
| | - Jian-Guo He
- State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China; Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering in Guangdong Province/School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, PR China.
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14
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15
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Bevans CG, Krettler C, Reinhart C, Watzka M, Oldenburg J. Phylogeny of the Vitamin K 2,3-Epoxide Reductase (VKOR) Family and Evolutionary Relationship to the Disulfide Bond Formation Protein B (DsbB) Family. Nutrients 2015; 7:6224-49. [PMID: 26230708 PMCID: PMC4555120 DOI: 10.3390/nu7085281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Revised: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
In humans and other vertebrate animals, vitamin K 2,3-epoxide reductase (VKOR) family enzymes are the gatekeepers between nutritionally acquired K vitamins and the vitamin K cycle responsible for posttranslational modifications that confer biological activity upon vitamin K-dependent proteins with crucial roles in hemostasis, bone development and homeostasis, hormonal carbohydrate regulation and fertility. We report a phylogenetic analysis of the VKOR family that identifies five major clades. Combined phylogenetic and site-specific conservation analyses point to clade-specific similarities and differences in structure and function. We discovered a single-site determinant uniquely identifying VKOR homologs belonging to human pathogenic, obligate intracellular prokaryotes and protists. Building on previous work by Sevier et al. (Protein Science 14:1630), we analyzed structural data from both VKOR and prokaryotic disulfide bond formation protein B (DsbB) families and hypothesize an ancient evolutionary relationship between the two families where one family arose from the other through a gene duplication/deletion event. This has resulted in circular permutation of primary sequence threading through the four-helical bundle protein folds of both families. This is the first report of circular permutation relating distant α-helical membrane protein sequences and folds. In conclusion, we suggest a chronology for the evolution of the five extant VKOR clades.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christoph Krettler
- Department of Molecular Membrane Biology, Max Planck Institute of Biophysics, 60388 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
| | - Christoph Reinhart
- Department of Molecular Membrane Biology, Max Planck Institute of Biophysics, 60388 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
| | - Matthias Watzka
- Institute of Experimental Haematology and Transfusion Medicine, University Clinic Bonn, 53105 Bonn, Germany.
| | - Johannes Oldenburg
- Institute of Experimental Haematology and Transfusion Medicine, University Clinic Bonn, 53105 Bonn, Germany.
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16
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Na S, Paek E, Choi JS, Kim D, Lee SJ, Kwon J. Characterization of disulfide bonds by planned digestion and tandem mass spectrometry. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2015; 11:1156-64. [PMID: 25703060 PMCID: PMC4410109 DOI: 10.1039/c4mb00688g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The identification of disulfide bonds provides critical information regarding the structure and function of a protein and is a key aspect in understanding signaling cascades in biological systems. Recent proteomic approaches using digestion enzymes have facilitated the characterization of disulfide-bonds and/or oxidized products from cysteine residues, although these methods have limitations in the application of MS/MS. For example, protein digestion to obtain the native form of disulfide bonds results in short lengths of amino acids, which can cause ambiguous MS/MS analysis due to false positive identifications. In this study we propose a new approach, termed planned digestion, to obtain sufficient amino acid lengths after cleavage for proteomic approaches. Application of the DBond software to planned digestion of specific proteins accurately identified disulfide-linked peptides. RNase A was used as a model protein in this study because the disulfide bonds of this protein have been well characterized. Application of this approach to peptides digested with Asp-N/C (chemical digestion) and trypsin under acid hydrolysis conditions identified the four native disulfide bonds of RNase A. Missed cleavages introduced by trypsin treatment for only 3 hours generated sufficient lengths of amino acids for identification of the disulfide bonds. Analysis using MS/MS successfully showed additional fragmentation patterns that are cleavage products of S-S and C-S bonds of disulfide-linkage peptides. These fragmentation patterns generate thioaldehydes, persulfide, and dehydroalanine. This approach of planned digestion with missed cleavages using the DBond algorithm could be applied to other proteins to determine their disulfide linkage and the oxidation patterns of cysteine residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seungjin Na
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States of America
- Center for Computational Mass Spectrometry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States of America
| | - Eunok Paek
- Division of Computer Science and Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, Rep. of Korea
| | - Jong-Soon Choi
- Division of Life Science, Korea Basic Science Institute, Daejeon 350-333, Rep. of Korea
| | - Duwoon Kim
- Department of Food Science and Technology and Function Food Research Center, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Rep. of Korea
| | - Seung Jae Lee
- Department of Chemistry and Research Center for Physics and Chemistry, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 561-756, Rep. of Korea
| | - Joseph Kwon
- Division of Life Science, Korea Basic Science Institute, Daejeon 350-333, Rep. of Korea
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17
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Analysis of the isomerase and chaperone-like activities of an amebic PDI (EhPDI). BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:286972. [PMID: 25695056 PMCID: PMC4324885 DOI: 10.1155/2015/286972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2014] [Revised: 11/20/2014] [Accepted: 11/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Protein disulfide isomerases (PDI) are eukaryotic oxidoreductases that catalyze the formation and rearrangement of disulfide bonds during folding of substrate proteins. Structurally, PDI enzymes share as a common feature the presence of at least one active thioredoxin-like domain. PDI enzymes are also involved in holding, refolding, and degradation of unfolded or misfolded proteins during stressful conditions. The EhPDI enzyme (a 38 kDa polypeptide with two active thioredoxin-like domains) has been used as a model to gain insights into protein folding and disulfide bond formation in E. histolytica. Here, we performed a functional complementation assay, using a ΔdsbC mutant of E. coli, to test whether EhPDI exhibits isomerase activity in vivo. Our preliminary results showed that EhPDI exhibits isomerase activity; however, further mutagenic analysis revealed significant differences in the functional role of each thioredoxin-like domain. Additional studies confirmed that EhPDI protects heat-labile enzymes against thermal inactivation, extending our knowledge about its chaperone-like activity. The characterization of EhPDI, as an oxidative folding catalyst with chaperone-like function, represents the initial step to dissect the molecular mechanisms involved in protein folding in E. histolytica.
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18
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Patil NA, Tailhades J, Hughes RA, Separovic F, Wade JD, Hossain MA. Cellular disulfide bond formation in bioactive peptides and proteins. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:1791-805. [PMID: 25594871 PMCID: PMC4307334 DOI: 10.3390/ijms16011791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Bioactive peptides play important roles in metabolic regulation and modulation and many are used as therapeutics. These peptides often possess disulfide bonds, which are important for their structure, function and stability. A systematic network of enzymes--a disulfide bond generating enzyme, a disulfide bond donor enzyme and a redox cofactor--that function inside the cell dictates the formation and maintenance of disulfide bonds. The main pathways that catalyze disulfide bond formation in peptides and proteins in prokaryotes and eukaryotes are remarkably similar and share several mechanistic features. This review summarizes the formation of disulfide bonds in peptides and proteins by cellular and recombinant machinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitin A Patil
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, the University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - Julien Tailhades
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, the University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - Richard Anthony Hughes
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, the University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - Frances Separovic
- School of Chemistry, the University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - John D Wade
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, the University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - Mohammed Akhter Hossain
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, the University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
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19
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Delic M, Göngrich R, Mattanovich D, Gasser B. Engineering of protein folding and secretion-strategies to overcome bottlenecks for efficient production of recombinant proteins. Antioxid Redox Signal 2014; 21:414-37. [PMID: 24483278 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2014.5844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Recombinant protein production has developed into a huge market with enormous positive implications for human health and for the future direction of a biobased economy. Limitations in the economic and technical feasibility of production processes are often related to bottlenecks of in vivo protein folding. RECENT ADVANCES Based on cell biological knowledge, some major bottlenecks have been overcome by the overexpression of molecular chaperones and other folding related proteins, or by the deletion of deleterious pathways that may lead to misfolding, mistargeting, or degradation. CRITICAL ISSUES While important success could be achieved by this strategy, the list of reported unsuccessful cases is disappointingly long and obviously dependent on the recombinant protein to be produced. Singular engineering of protein folding steps may not lead to desired results if the pathway suffers from several limitations. In particular, the connection between folding quality control and proteolytic degradation needs further attention. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Based on recent understanding that multiple steps in the folding and secretion pathways limit productivity, synergistic combinations of the cell engineering approaches mentioned earlier need to be explored. In addition, systems biology-based whole cell analysis that also takes energy and redox metabolism into consideration will broaden the knowledge base for future rational engineering strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marizela Delic
- 1 Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU) , Vienna, Austria
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20
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Osorio-Yáñez RN, Crisóstomo-Lucas C, Santacruz-Juárez E, Reyes-Martínez R, Morales-Morales D. Bis(2,3-di-chloro-phen-yl) di-sulfide. Acta Crystallogr Sect E Struct Rep Online 2014; 70:o529. [PMID: 24860342 PMCID: PMC4011246 DOI: 10.1107/s1600536814007326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The title compound, C12H6Cl4S2, features an S—S bond [2.0252 (8) Å] that bridges two 2,3-dichlorophenyl rings with a C—S—S—C torsion angle of 88.35 (11)°. The benzene rings are normal one to the other with a dihedral angle of 89.83 (11)°. The crystal structure features intermolecular Cl⋯Cl [3.4763 (11) Å] and π–π stacking interactions [centroid–centroid distances = 3.696 (1) and 3.641 (2) Å]. Intramolecular C—H⋯S interactions are also observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeca Nayely Osorio-Yáñez
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, México, D.F., 04510, Mexico
| | - Carmela Crisóstomo-Lucas
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, México, D.F., 04510, Mexico
| | - Ericka Santacruz-Juárez
- Universidad Politécnica de Tlaxcala, Av. Universidad Politécnica de Tlaxcala No. 1, San Pedro Xalcaltzinco Municipio de Tepeyanco, Tlaxcala, C.P. 90180, Mexico
| | - Reyna Reyes-Martínez
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, México, D.F., 04510, Mexico
| | - David Morales-Morales
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, México, D.F., 04510, Mexico
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21
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Israel BA, Jiang L, Gannon SA, Thorpe C. Disulfide bond generation in mammalian blood serum: detection and purification of quiescin-sulfhydryl oxidase. Free Radic Biol Med 2014; 69:129-35. [PMID: 24468475 PMCID: PMC3960832 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2014.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Revised: 01/14/2014] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive new plate-reader assay has been developed showing that adult mammalian blood serum contains circulating soluble sulfhydryl oxidase activity that can introduce disulfide bonds into reduced proteins with the reduction of oxygen to hydrogen peroxide. The activity was purified 5000-fold to >90% homogeneity from bovine serum and found by mass spectrometry to be consistent with the short isoform of quiescin-sulfhydryl oxidase 1 (QSOX1). This FAD-dependent enzyme is present at comparable activity levels in fetal and adult commercial bovine sera. Thus cell culture media that are routinely supplemented with either fetal or adult bovine sera will contain this facile catalyst of protein thiol oxidation. QSOX1 is present at approximately 25 nM in pooled normal adult human serum. Examination of the unusual kinetics of QSOX1 toward cysteine and glutathione at low micromolar concentrations suggests that circulating QSOX1 is unlikely to significantly contribute to the oxidation of these monothiols in plasma. However, the ability of QSOX1 to rapidly oxidize conformationally mobile protein thiols suggests a possible contribution to the redox status of exofacial and soluble proteins in blood plasma. Recent proteomic studies showing that plasma QSOX1 can be utilized in the diagnosis of pancreatic cancer and acute decompensated heart failure, together with the overexpression of this secreted enzyme in a number of solid tumors, suggest that the robust QSOX assay developed here may be useful in the quantitation of enzyme levels in a wide range of biological fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A Israel
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Lingxi Jiang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Shawn A Gannon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Colin Thorpe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA.
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22
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Halloran M, Parakh S, Atkin JD. The role of s-nitrosylation and s-glutathionylation of protein disulphide isomerase in protein misfolding and neurodegeneration. Int J Cell Biol 2013; 2013:797914. [PMID: 24348565 PMCID: PMC3852308 DOI: 10.1155/2013/797914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2013] [Revised: 08/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases involve the progressive loss of neurons, and a pathological hallmark is the presence of abnormal inclusions containing misfolded proteins. Although the precise molecular mechanisms triggering neurodegeneration remain unclear, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, elevated oxidative and nitrosative stress, and protein misfolding are important features in pathogenesis. Protein disulphide isomerase (PDI) is the prototype of a family of molecular chaperones and foldases upregulated during ER stress that are increasingly implicated in neurodegenerative diseases. PDI catalyzes the rearrangement and formation of disulphide bonds, thus facilitating protein folding, and in neurodegeneration may act to ameliorate the burden of protein misfolding. However, an aberrant posttranslational modification of PDI, S-nitrosylation, inhibits its protective function in these conditions. S-nitrosylation is a redox-mediated modification that regulates protein function by covalent addition of nitric oxide- (NO-) containing groups to cysteine residues. Here, we discuss the evidence for abnormal S-nitrosylation of PDI (SNO-PDI) in neurodegeneration and how this may be linked to another aberrant modification of PDI, S-glutathionylation. Understanding the role of aberrant S-nitrosylation/S-glutathionylation of PDI in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases may provide insights into novel therapeutic interventions in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Halloran
- Department of Neuroscience in the School of Psychological Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia
| | - S. Parakh
- Department of Biochemistry, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia
| | - J. D. Atkin
- Department of Biochemistry, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia
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23
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Identification and characterization of mitochondrial Mia40 as an iron–sulfur protein. Biochem J 2013; 455:27-35. [DOI: 10.1042/bj20130442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Mia40 is a highly conserved mitochondrial protein playing an essential role during biogenesis of mitochondrial proteins. Here we show that Mia40 is a novel iron–sulfur protein that binds a [2Fe–2S] cluster in a dimer form with its CPC motifs.
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24
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Karshikoff A, Nilsson L, Foloppe N. Understanding the −C–X1–X2–C– Motif in the Active Site of the Thioredoxin Superfamily: E. coli DsbA and Its Mutants as a Model System. Biochemistry 2013; 52:5730-45. [DOI: 10.1021/bi400500e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrey Karshikoff
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Str.,
bl. 21, Sofia 1113, Bulgaria
| | - Lennart Nilsson
- Department of Biosciences and
Nutrition, Center for Biosciences, Karolinska Institutet, S-141 83 Huddinge, Sweden
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25
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Biological Insights into Therapeutic Protein Modifications throughout Trafficking and Their Biopharmaceutical Applications. Int J Cell Biol 2013; 2013:273086. [PMID: 23690780 PMCID: PMC3652174 DOI: 10.1155/2013/273086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the lifespan of therapeutic proteins, from the point of biosynthesis to the complete clearance from tested subjects, they undergo various biological modifications. Therapeutic influences and molecular mechanisms of these modifications have been well appreciated for some while remained less understood for many. This paper has classified these modifications into multiple categories, according to their processing locations and enzymatic involvement during the trafficking events. It also focuses on the underlying mechanisms and structural-functional relationship between modifications and therapeutic properties. In addition, recent advances in protein engineering, cell line engineering, and process engineering, by exploring these complex cellular processes, are discussed and summarized, for improving functional characteristics and attributes of protein-based biopharmaceutical products.
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26
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Bodelón G, Palomino C, Fernández LÁ. Immunoglobulin domains inEscherichia coliand other enterobacteria: from pathogenesis to applications in antibody technologies. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2013; 37:204-50. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2012.00347.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Revised: 06/07/2012] [Accepted: 06/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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27
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Schwarz C, Bohne AV, Wang F, Cejudo FJ, Nickelsen J. An intermolecular disulfide-based light switch for chloroplast psbD gene expression in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 72:378-89. [PMID: 22725132 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2012.05083.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Expression of the chloroplast psbD gene encoding the D2 protein of the photosystem II reaction center is regulated by light. In the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, D2 synthesis requires a high-molecular-weight complex containing the RNA stabilization factor Nac2 and the translational activator RBP40. Based on size exclusion chromatography analyses, we provide evidence that light control of D2 synthesis depends on dynamic formation of the Nac2/RBP40 complex. Furthermore, 2D redox SDS-PAGE assays suggest an intermolecular disulfide bridge between Nac2 and Cys11 of RBP40 as the putative molecular basis for attachment of RBP40 to the complex in light-grown cells. This covalent link is reduced in the dark, most likely via NADPH-dependent thioredoxin reductase C, supporting the idea of a direct relationship between chloroplast gene expression and chloroplast carbon metabolism during dark adaption of algal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Schwarz
- Molekulare Pflanzenwissenschaften, Biozentrum Ludwig Maximilian University Munich, Grosshaderner Strasse, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
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28
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Haque SJ, Majumdar T, Barik S. Redox-assisted protein folding systems in eukaryotic parasites. Antioxid Redox Signal 2012; 17:674-83. [PMID: 22122448 PMCID: PMC3373220 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2011.4433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE The cysteine (Cys) residues of proteins play two fundamentally important roles. They serve as sites of post-translational redox modifications as well as influence the conformation of the protein through the formation of disulfide bonds. RECENT ADVANCES Redox-related and redox-associated protein folding in protozoan parasites has been found to be a major mode of regulation, affecting myriad aspects of the parasitic life cycle, host-parasite interactions, and the disease pathology. Available genome sequences of various parasites have begun to complement the classical biochemical and enzymological studies of these processes. In this article, we summarize the reversible Cys disulfide (S-S) bond formation in various classes of strategically important parasitic proteins, and its structural consequence and functional relevance. CRITICAL ISSUES Molecular mechanisms of folding remain under-studied and often disconnected from functional relevance. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The clinical benefit of redox research will require a comprehensive characterization of the various isoforms and paralogs of the redox enzymes and their concerted effect on the structure and function of the specific parasitic client proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saikh Jaharul Haque
- Department of Pathobiology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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29
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Oxidative processing of latent Fas in the endoplasmic reticulum controls the strength of apoptosis. Mol Cell Biol 2012; 32:3464-78. [PMID: 22751926 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00125-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We recently demonstrated that S-glutathionylation of the death receptor Fas (Fas-SSG) amplifies apoptosis (V. Anathy et al., J. Cell Biol. 184:241-252, 2009). In the present study, we demonstrate that distinct pools of Fas exist in cells. Upon ligation of surface Fas, a separate pool of latent Fas in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) underwent rapid oxidative processing characterized by the loss of free sulfhydryl content (Fas-SH) and resultant increases in S-glutathionylation of Cys294, leading to increases of surface Fas. Stimulation with FasL rapidly induced associations of Fas with ERp57 and glutathione S-transferase π (GSTP), a protein disulfide isomerase and catalyst of S-glutathionylation, respectively, in the ER. Knockdown or inhibition of ERp57 and GSTP1 substantially decreased FasL-induced oxidative processing and S-glutathionylation of Fas, resulting in decreased death-inducing signaling complex formation and caspase activity and enhanced survival. Bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis was accompanied by increased interactions between Fas-ERp57-GSTP1 and S-glutathionylation of Fas. Importantly, fibrosis was largely prevented following short interfering RNA-mediated ablation of ERp57 and GSTP. Collectively, these findings illuminate a regulatory switch, a ligand-initiated oxidative processing of latent Fas, that controls the strength of apoptosis.
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30
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Nimthong R, Pakawatchai C, Wattanakanjana Y. Di-μ-bromido-bis({2-[(4,6-dimethylpyrimidin-2-yl)disulfanyl]-4,6-dimethylpyrimidine-κ 2N1, S2}copper(I)). Acta Crystallogr Sect E Struct Rep Online 2012; 68:m645. [PMID: 22590134 PMCID: PMC3344368 DOI: 10.1107/s1600536812016315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 04/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The title dinuclear complex, [Cu2Br2(C12H14N4S2)2], is located about an inversion center. The CuI ion is coordinated in a distorted tetrahedral geometry by two bridging Br atoms in addition to an N and an S atom from the 2-[(4,6-dimethylpyrimidin-2-yl)disulfanyl]-4,6-dimethylpyrimidine ligand. In the crystal, π–π stacking interactions are observed with a centroid–centroid distance of 3.590 (2) Å.
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31
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Kim S, Sideris DP, Sevier CS, Kaiser CA. Balanced Ero1 activation and inactivation establishes ER redox homeostasis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 196:713-25. [PMID: 22412017 PMCID: PMC3308690 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201110090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) provides an environment optimized for oxidative protein folding through the action of Ero1p, which generates disulfide bonds, and Pdi1p, which receives disulfide bonds from Ero1p and transfers them to substrate proteins. Feedback regulation of Ero1p through reduction and oxidation of regulatory bonds within Ero1p is essential for maintaining the proper redox balance in the ER. In this paper, we show that Pdi1p is the key regulator of Ero1p activity. Reduced Pdi1p resulted in the activation of Ero1p by direct reduction of Ero1p regulatory bonds. Conversely, upon depletion of thiol substrates and accumulation of oxidized Pdi1p, Ero1p was inactivated by both autonomous oxidation and Pdi1p-mediated oxidation of Ero1p regulatory bonds. Pdi1p responded to the availability of free thiols and the relative levels of reduced and oxidized glutathione in the ER to control Ero1p activity and ensure that cells generate the minimum number of disulfide bonds needed for efficient oxidative protein folding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunghwan Kim
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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32
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33
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Feng WK, Wang L, Lu Y, Wang XY. A protein oxidase catalysing disulfide bond formation is localized to the chloroplast thylakoids. FEBS J 2011; 278:3419-30. [PMID: 21781282 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2011.08265.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In chloroplasts, thiol/disulfide-redox-regulated proteins have been linked to numerous metabolic pathways. However, the biochemical system for disulfide bond formation in chloroplasts remains undetermined. In the present study, we characterized an oxidoreductase, AtVKOR-DsbA, encoded by the gene At4g35760 as a potential disulfide bond oxidant in Arabidopsis. The gene product contains two distinct domains: an integral membrane domain homologous to the catalytic subunit of mammalian vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR) and a soluble DsbA-like domain. Transient expression of green fluorescent protein fusion in Arabidopsis protoplasts indicated that AtVKOR-DsbA is located in the chloroplast. The first 45 amino acids from the N-terminus were found to act as a transit peptide targeting the protein to the chloroplast. An immunoblot assay of chloroplast fractions revealed that AtVKOR-DsbA was localized in the thylakoid. A motility complementation assay showed that the full-length of AtVKOR-DsbA, if lacking its transit peptide, could catalyze the formation of disulfide bonds. Among the 10 cysteine residues present in the mature protein, eight cysteines (four in the AtVKOR domain and four in the AtDsbA domain) were found to be essential for promoting disulfide bond formation. The topological arrangement of AtVKOR-DsbA was assayed using alkaline phosphatase sandwich fusions. From these results, we developed a possible topology model of AtVKOR-DsbA in chloroplasts. We propose that the integral membrane domain of AtVKOR-DsbA contains four transmembrane helices, and that both termini and the cysteines involved in catalyzing the formation of disulfide bonds face the oxidative thylakoid lumen. These studies may help to resolve some of the issues surrounding the structure and function of AtVKOR-DsbA in Arabidopsis chloroplasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Ke Feng
- College of Life Science, Shandong Agricultural University, Shandong Taian, China
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34
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Kisiela DI, Kramer JJ, Tchesnokova V, Aprikian P, Yarov-Yarovoy V, Clegg S, Sokurenko EV. Allosteric catch bond properties of the FimH adhesin from Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:38136-38147. [PMID: 21795699 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.237511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite sharing the name and the ability to mediate mannose-sensitive adhesion, the type 1 fimbrial FimH adhesins of Salmonella Typhimurium and Escherichia coli share only 15% sequence identity. In the present study, we demonstrate that even with this limited identity in primary sequence, these two proteins share remarkable similarity of complex receptor binding and structural properties. In silico simulations suggest that, like E. coli FimH, Salmonella FimH has a two-domain tertiary structure topology, with a mannose-binding pocket located on the apex of a lectin domain. Structural analysis of mutations that enhance S. Typhimurium FimH binding to eukaryotic cells and mannose-BSA demonstrated that they are not located proximal to the predicted mannose-binding pocket but rather occur in the vicinity of the predicted interface between the lectin and pilin domains of the adhesin. This implies that the functional effect of such mutations is indirect and probably allosteric in nature. By analogy with E. coli FimH, we suggest that Salmonella FimH functions as an allosteric catch bond adhesin, where shear-induced separation of the lectin and pilin domains results in a shift from a low affinity to a high affinity binding conformation of the lectin domain. Indeed, we observed shear-enhanced binding of whole bacteria expressing S. Typhimurium type 1 fimbriae. In addition, we observed that anti-FimH antibodies activate rather than inhibit S. Typhimurium FimH mannose binding, consistent with the allosteric catch bond properties of this adhesin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dagmara I Kisiela
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Jeremy J Kramer
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | | | - Pavel Aprikian
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | | | - Steven Clegg
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242
| | - Evgeni V Sokurenko
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195.
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35
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Kuramochi K, Sunoki T, Tsubaki K, Mizushina Y, Sakaguchi K, Sugawara F, Ikekita M, Kobayashi S. Transformation of thiols to disulfides by epolactaene and its derivatives. Bioorg Med Chem 2011; 19:4162-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2011.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Revised: 06/02/2011] [Accepted: 06/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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36
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Salinas G, Pellizza L, Margenat M, Fló M, Fernández C. Tuned Escherichia coli as a host for the expression of disulfide-rich proteins. Biotechnol J 2011; 6:686-99. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201000335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2011] [Revised: 03/05/2011] [Accepted: 03/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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37
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Shouldice SR, Heras B, Walden PM, Totsika M, Schembri MA, Martin JL. Structure and function of DsbA, a key bacterial oxidative folding catalyst. Antioxid Redox Signal 2011; 14:1729-60. [PMID: 21241169 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2010.3344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Since its discovery in 1991, the bacterial periplasmic oxidative folding catalyst DsbA has been the focus of intense research. Early studies addressed why it is so oxidizing and how it is maintained in its less stable oxidized state. The crystal structure of Escherichia coli DsbA (EcDsbA) revealed that the oxidizing periplasmic enzyme is a distant evolutionary cousin of the reducing cytoplasmic enzyme thioredoxin. Recent significant developments have deepened our understanding of DsbA function, mechanism, and interactions: the structure of the partner membrane protein EcDsbB, including its complex with EcDsbA, proved a landmark in the field. Studies of DsbA machineries from bacteria other than E. coli K-12 have highlighted dramatic differences from the model organism, including a striking divergence in redox parameters and surface features. Several DsbA structures have provided the first clues to its interaction with substrates, and finally, evidence for a central role of DsbA in bacterial virulence has been demonstrated in a range of organisms. Here, we review current knowledge on DsbA, a bacterial periplasmic protein that introduces disulfide bonds into diverse substrate proteins and which may one day be the target of a new class of anti-virulence drugs to treat bacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen R Shouldice
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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38
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Al-Abdul-Wahid MS, Evanics F, Prosser RS. Dioxygen transmembrane distributions and partitioning thermodynamics in lipid bilayers and micelles. Biochemistry 2011; 50:3975-83. [PMID: 21510612 DOI: 10.1021/bi200168n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cellular respiration, mediated by the passive diffusion of oxygen across lipid membranes, is key to many basic cellular processes. In this work, we report the detailed distribution of oxygen across lipid bilayers and examine the thermodynamics of oxygen partitioning via NMR studies of lipids in a small unilamellar vesicle (SUV) morphology. Dissolved oxygen gives rise to paramagnetic chemical shift perturbations and relaxation rate enhancements, both of which report on local oxygen concentration. From SUVs containing the phospholipid sn-2-perdeuterio-1-myristelaidoyl, 2-myristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (MLMPC), an analogue of 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC), we deduced the complete trans-bilayer oxygen distribution by measuring (13)C paramagnetic chemical shifts perturbations for 18 different sites on MLMPC arising from oxygen at a partial pressure of 30 bar. The overall oxygen solubility at 45 °C spans a factor of 7 between the bulk water (23.7 mM) and the bilayer center (170 mM) and is lowest in the vicinity of the phosphocholine headgroup, suggesting that oxygen diffusion across the glycerol backbone should be the rate-limiting step in diffusion-mediated passive transport of oxygen across the lipid bilayer. Lowering of the temperature from 45 to 25 °C gave rise to a slight decrease of the oxygen solubility within the hydrocarbon interior of the membrane. An analysis of the temperature dependence of the oxygen solubility profile, as measured by (1)H paramagnetic relaxation rate enhancements, reveals that oxygen partitioning into the bilayer is entropically favored (ΔS° = 54 ± 3 J K(-1) mol(-1)) and must overcome an enthalpic barrier (ΔH° = 12.0 ± 0.9 kJ mol(-1)).
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sameer Al-Abdul-Wahid
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, UTM, North Mississauga, Ontario, Canada L5L 1C6
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39
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The endoplasmic reticulum sulfhydryl oxidase Ero1β drives efficient oxidative protein folding with loose regulation. Biochem J 2011; 434:113-21. [PMID: 21091435 DOI: 10.1042/bj20101357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In eukaryotes, disulfide bonds are formed in the endoplasmic reticulum, facilitated by the Ero1 (endoplasmic reticulum oxidoreductin 1) oxidase/PDI (protein disulfide-isomerase) system. Mammals have two ERO1 genes, encoding Ero1α and Ero1β proteins. Ero1β is constitutively expressed in professional secretory tissues and induced during the unfolded protein response. In the present work, we show that recombinant human Ero1β is twice as active as Ero1α in enzymatic assays. Ero1β oxidizes PDI more efficiently than other PDI family members and drives oxidative protein folding preferentially via the active site in the á domain of PDI. Our results reveal that Ero1β oxidase activity is regulated by long-range disulfide bonds and that Cys130 plays a critical role in feedback regulation. Compared with Ero1α, however, Ero1β is loosely regulated, consistent with its role as a more active oxidase when massive oxidative power is required.
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40
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Molecular recognition and substrate mimicry drive the electron-transfer process between MIA40 and ALR. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:4811-6. [PMID: 21383138 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1014542108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative protein folding in the mitochondrial intermembrane space requires the transfer of a disulfide bond from MIA40 to the substrate. During this process MIA40 is reduced and regenerated to a functional state through the interaction with the flavin-dependent sulfhydryl oxidase ALR. Here we present the mechanistic basis of ALR-MIA40 interaction at atomic resolution by biochemical and structural analyses of the mitochondrial ALR isoform and its covalent mixed disulfide intermediate with MIA40. This ALR isoform contains a folded FAD-binding domain at the C-terminus and an unstructured, flexible N-terminal domain, weakly and transiently interacting one with the other. A specific region of the N-terminal domain guides the interaction with the MIA40 substrate binding cleft (mimicking the interaction of the substrate itself), without being involved in the import of ALR. The hydrophobicity-driven binding of this region ensures precise protein-protein recognition needed for an efficient electron transfer process.
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41
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Recycling of peroxiredoxin IV provides a novel pathway for disulphide formation in the endoplasmic reticulum. EMBO J 2010; 29:4185-97. [PMID: 21057456 PMCID: PMC3018787 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2010.273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2010] [Accepted: 10/15/2010] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Disulphide formation in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is catalysed by members of the protein disulphide isomerase (PDI) family. These enzymes can be oxidized by the flavoprotein ER oxidoreductin 1 (Ero1), which couples disulphide formation with reduction of oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)). The H(2)O(2) produced can be metabolized by ER-localized peroxiredoxin IV (PrxIV). Continuous catalytic activity of PrxIV depends on reduction of a disulphide within the active site to form a free thiol, which can then react with H(2)O(2). Here, we demonstrate that several members of the PDI family are able to directly reduce this PrxIV disulphide and in the process become oxidized. Furthermore, we show that altering cellular expression of these proteins within the ER influences the efficiency with which PrxIV can be recycled. The oxidation of PDI family members by PrxIV is a highly efficient process and demonstrates how oxidation by H(2)O(2) can be coupled to disulphide formation. Oxidation of PDI by PrxIV may therefore increase efficiency of disulphide formation by Ero1 and also allows disulphide formation via alternative sources of H(2)O(2).
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42
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Kadokura H, Beckwith J. Mechanisms of oxidative protein folding in the bacterial cell envelope. Antioxid Redox Signal 2010; 13:1231-46. [PMID: 20367276 PMCID: PMC2959184 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2010.3187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Disulfide-bond formation is important for the correct folding of a great number of proteins that are exported to the cell envelope of bacteria. Bacterial cells have evolved elaborate systems to promote the joining of two cysteines to form a disulfide bond and to repair misoxidized proteins. In the past two decades, significant advances have occurred in our understanding of the enzyme systems (DsbA, DsbB, DsbC, DsbG, and DsbD) used by the gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli to ensure that correct pairs of cysteines are joined during the process of protein folding. However, a number of fundamental questions about these processes remain, especially about how they occur inside the cell. In addition, recent recognition of the increasing diversity among bacteria in the disulfide bond-forming capacity and in the systems for introducing disulfide bonds into proteins is raising new questions. We review here the marked progress in this field and discuss important questions that remain for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Kadokura
- Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Takayama, Ikoma, Nara, Japan.
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43
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Crystal structures of human Ero1α reveal the mechanisms of regulated and targeted oxidation of PDI. EMBO J 2010; 29:3330-43. [PMID: 20834232 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2010.222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2010] [Accepted: 08/17/2010] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of eukaryotic cells, Ero1 flavoenzymes promote oxidative protein folding through protein disulphide isomerase (PDI), generating reactive oxygen species (hydrogen peroxide) as byproducts. Therefore, Ero1 activity must be strictly regulated to avoid futile oxidation cycles in the ER. Although regulatory mechanisms restraining Ero1α activity ensure that not all PDIs are oxidized, its specificity towards PDI could allow other resident oxidoreductases to remain reduced and competent to carry out isomerization and reduction of protein substrates. In this study, crystal structures of human Ero1α were solved in its hyperactive and inactive forms. Our findings reveal that human Ero1α modulates its oxidative activity by properly positioning regulatory cysteines within an intrinsically flexible loop, and by fine-tuning the electron shuttle ability of the loop through disulphide rearrangements. Specific PDI targeting is guaranteed by electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions of Ero1α with the PDI b'-domain through its substrate-binding pocket. These results reveal the molecular basis of the regulation and specificity of protein disulphide formation in human cells.
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44
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Kozlov G, Määttänen P, Thomas DY, Gehring K. A structural overview of the PDI family of proteins. FEBS J 2010; 277:3924-36. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2010.07793.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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45
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Inaba K. MBSJ MCC Young Scientist Award 2009
REVIEW: Structural basis of protein disulfide bond generation in the cell. Genes Cells 2010; 15:935-43. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2443.2010.01434.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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46
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Trivedi MV, Laurence JS, Siahaan TJ. The role of thiols and disulfides on protein stability. Curr Protein Pept Sci 2010; 10:614-25. [PMID: 19538140 DOI: 10.2174/138920309789630534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 265] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2008] [Accepted: 05/23/2009] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
There has been a tremendous increase in the number of approved drugs derived from recombinant proteins; however, their development as potential drugs has been hampered by their instability that causes difficulty to formulate them as therapeutic agents. It has been shown that the reactivity of thiol and disulfide functional groups could catalyze chemical (i.e., oxidation and beta-elimination reactions) and physical (i.e., aggregation and precipitation) degradations of proteins. Because most proteins contain a free Cys residue or/and a disulfide bond, this review is focused on their roles in the physical and chemical stability of proteins. The effect of introducing a disulfide bond to improve physical stability of proteins and the mechanisms of degradation of disulfide bond were discussed. The qualitative/quantitative methods to determine the presence of thiol in the Cys residue and various methods to derivatize thiol group for improving protein stability were also illustrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maulik V Trivedi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Simons Research Laboratories, 2095 Constant Ave., Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA
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Sugiura Y, Araki K, Iemura SI, Natsume T, Hoseki J, Nagata K. Novel thioredoxin-related transmembrane protein TMX4 has reductase activity. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:7135-42. [PMID: 20056998 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.082545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), a number of thioredoxin (Trx) superfamily proteins are present to enable correct disulfide bond formation of secretory and membrane proteins via Trx-like domains. Here, we identified a novel transmembrane Trx-like protein 4 (TMX4), in the ER of mammalian cells. TMX4, a type I transmembrane protein, was localized to the ER and possessed a Trx-like domain that faced the ER lumen. A maleimide alkylation assay showed that a catalytic CXXC motif in the TMX4 Trx-like domain underwent changes in its redox state depending on cellular redox conditions, and, in the normal state, most of the endogenous TMX4 existed in the oxidized form. Using a purified recombinant protein containing the Trx-like domain of TMX4 (TMX4-Trx), we confirmed that this domain had reductase activity in vitro. The redox potential of this domain (-171.5 mV; 30 degrees C at pH 7.0) indicated that TMX4 could work as a reductase in the environment of the ER. TMX4 had no effect on the acceleration of ER-associated degradation. Because TMX4 interacted with calnexin and ERp57 by co-immunoprecipitation assay, the role of TMX4 may be to enable protein folding in cooperation with these proteins consisting of folding complex in the ER.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshimi Sugiura
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Institute for Frontier Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
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Sideris DP, Tokatlidis K. Trapping oxidative folding intermediates during translocation to the intermembrane space of mitochondria: in vivo and in vitro studies. Methods Mol Biol 2010; 619:411-423. [PMID: 20419425 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60327-412-8_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The MIA40 pathway is a novel import pathway in mitochondria specific for cysteine-rich proteins of the intermembrane space (IMS). The newly synthesised precursors are trapped in the IMS by a disulfide relay mechanism that involves introduction of disulfides from the sulfhydryl oxidase Erv1 to the redox-regulated import receptor Mia40 and then on to the substrate. This thiol-disulfide exchange mechanism is essential for the import and oxidative folding of the incoming cysteine-rich substrate proteins. In this chapter we will describe the experimental methods that have been developed in order to study and characterise disulfide-trapped intermediates in yeast mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dionisia P Sideris
- Department of Biology, University of Crete and Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology-Foundation for Research and Technology Hellas, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
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Karala AR, Lappi AK, Ruddock LW. Modulation of an active-site cysteine pKa allows PDI to act as a catalyst of both disulfide bond formation and isomerization. J Mol Biol 2009; 396:883-92. [PMID: 20026073 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2009.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2009] [Revised: 12/04/2009] [Accepted: 12/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) plays a central role in disulfide bond formation in the endoplasmic reticulum. It is implicated both in disulfide bond formation and in disulfide bond reduction and isomerization. To be an efficient catalyst of all three reactions requires complex mechanisms. These include mechanisms to modulate the pK(a) values of the active-site cysteines of PDI. Here, we examined the role of arginine 120 in modulating the pK(a) values of these cysteines. We find that arginine 120 plays a significant role in modulating the pK(a) of the C-terminal active-site cysteine in the a domain of PDI and plays a role in determining the reactivity of the N-terminal active-site cysteine but not via direct modulation of its pK(a). Mutation of arginine 120 and the corresponding residue, arginine 461, in the a' domain severely reduces the ability of PDI to catalyze disulfide bond formation and reduction but enhances the ability to catalyze disulfide bond isomerization due to the formation of more stable PDI-substrate mixed disulfides. These results suggest that the modulation of pK(a) of the C-terminal active cysteine by the movement of the side chain of these arginine residues into the active-site locales has evolved to allow PDI to efficiently catalyze both oxidation and isomerization reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Riikka Karala
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oulu, PO Box 3000, 90014 University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
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Kouwen TRHM, van Dijl JM. Applications of thiol-disulfide oxidoreductases for optimized in vivo production of functionally active proteins in Bacillus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2009; 85:45-52. [PMID: 19727703 PMCID: PMC2765640 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-009-2212-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2009] [Revised: 08/17/2009] [Accepted: 08/18/2009] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Bacillus subtilis is a well-established cellular factory for proteins and fine chemicals. In particular, the direct secretion of proteinaceous products into the growth medium greatly facilitates their downstream processing, which is an important advantage of B. subtilis over other biotechnological production hosts, such as Escherichia coli. The application spectrum of B. subtilis is, however, often confined to proteins from Bacillus or closely related species. One of the major reasons for this (current) limitation is the inefficient formation of disulfide bonds, which are found in many, especially eukaryotic, proteins. Future exploitation of B. subtilis to fulfill the ever-growing demand for pharmaceutical and other high-value proteins will therefore depend on overcoming this particular hurdle. Recently, promising advances in this area have been achieved, which focus attention on the need to modulate the cellular levels and activity of thiol-disulfide oxidoreductases (TDORs). These TDORs are enzymes that control the cleavage or formation of disulfide bonds. This review will discuss readily applicable approaches for TDOR modulation and aims to provide leads for further improvement of the Bacillus cell factory for production of disulfide bond-containing proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thijs R H M Kouwen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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