Renal Dosimetry in Peptide Radionuclide Receptor Therapy

90Y-DOTATOC Dosimetry-Based Personalized Peptide Receptor Radionuclide Therapy

Pretherapy PET with ⁸⁶Y-DOTATOC is considered the ideal dosimetry protocol for ⁹⁰Y-DOTATOC therapy; however, its cost, limited availability, and need for infusion of amino acids to mimic the therapy administration limit its use in the clinical setting. The goal of this study was to develop a dosimetric method for ⁹⁰Y-DOTATOC using ⁹⁰Y-DOTATOC PET/CT and bremsstrahlung SPECT/CT and to determine whether dosimetry-based administered activities differ significantly from standard administered activities. Methods: This was a prospective phase 2 trial of ⁹⁰Y-DOTATOC therapy in patients with somatostatin receptor-positive tumors. ⁹⁰Y-DOTATOC was given in 3 cycles 6-8 wk apart. In the first cycle of therapy, adults received 4.4 GBq and children received 1.85 GBq/m²; the subsequent administered activities were adjusted according to the dosimetry of the preceding cycle so as not to exceed a total kidney dose of 23 Gy and bone marrow dose of 2 Gy. The radiation dose to the kidneys was determined from serial imaging sessions consisting of time-of-flight ⁹⁰Y-DOTATOC PET/CT at 5 h after therapy and ⁹⁰Y-DOTATOC bremsstrahlung SPECT/CT at 6, 24, 48, and 72 h. The PET/CT data were used to measure the absolute concentration of ⁹⁰Y-DOTATOC and to calibrate the bremsstrahlung SPECT kidney clearance data. The radiation dose to the kidneys was determined by multiplying the time-integrated activity (from the fitted biexponential curve of renal clearance of ⁹⁰Y-DOTATOC) with the energy emitted per decay, divided by the mass of the kidneys. Results: The radiation dose to the kidneys per cycle of ⁹⁰Y-DOTATOC therapy was highly variable among patients, ranging from 0.32 to 3.0 mGy/MBq. In 17 (85%) of the 20 adult patients who received the second and the third treatment cycles of ⁹⁰Y-DOTATOC, the administered activity was modified by at least 20% from the starting administered activity. Conclusion: Renal dosimetry of ⁹⁰Y-DOTATOC is feasible using ⁹⁰Y-DOTATOC time-of-flight PET/CT and bremsstrahlung SPECT/CT and has a significant impact on the administered activity in treatment cycles.

Sensitivity Analysis of a Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Model Used for Treatment Planning in Peptide Receptor Radionuclide Therapy

The aim of this work was to evaluate the sensitivity of time-integrated activity coefficients (TIACs) on the erroneously chosen prior knowledge in a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model used for treatment planning in peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT). Parameters of the PBPK model were fitted to the biokinetic data of 15 patients after the injection of (111)In-DTPAOC. The fittings were performed using fixed parameter values taken from literature as prior knowledge (reference case, Ref). The fixed parameters were gender, physical information (e.g., body weight), dissociation rate koff, dissociation constant KD, fraction of blood flow, and spleen and liver volumes. The fittings were repeated with changed fixed parameters (Changed). The relative deviations (RDs) of TIACs calculated from Changed and Ref were analyzed for kidneys, tumor, liver, spleen, remainder, whole body, and serum. A changed koff has the largest effect on RD, the largest RD values were found for changed koff = 0.001 L/min: RDkidneys = (3 ± 3)%, RDtumor = (0.5 ± 4)%, RDliver = (6 ± 9)%, RDspleen = (5 ± 5)%, RDremainder = (2 ± 31)%, RDserum = (-4 ± 25)%, and RDwholebody = (3 ± 16)%. For other changed parameters, the maximum RDs were <1%. The calculation of organ TIACs in PRRT using the PBPK model was little affected by assigning wrong prior knowledge to the evaluated patients. The calculation of bone marrow-absorbed doses could be affected by the inaccurate TIACs of serum and remainder in the case of an inadequate koff.

Patient-specific dosimetry in peptide receptor radionuclide therapy: a clinical review

Neuroendocrine tumours (NETs) belong to a relatively rare class of neoplasms. Nonetheless, their prevalence has increased significantly during the last decades. Peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) is a relatively new treatment approach for inoperable or metastasised NETs. The therapeutic effect is based on the binding of radiolabelled somatostatin analogue peptides with NETs' somatostatin receptors, resulting in internal irradiation of tumours. Pre-therapeutic patient-specific dosimetry is essential to ensure that a treatment course has high levels of safety and efficacy. This paper reviews the methods applied for PRRT dosimetry, as well as the dosimetric results presented in the literature. Focus is given on data concerning the therapeutic somatostatin analogue radiopeptides (111)In-[DTPA(0),D-Phe(1)]-octreotide ((111)In-DTPA-octreotide), (90)Y-[DOTA(0),Tyr(3)]-octreotide ((90)Y-DOTATOC) and (177)Lu-[DOTA(0),Tyr(3),Thr(8)]-octreotide ((177)Lu-DOTATATE). Following the Medical Internal Radiation Dose (MIRD) Committee formalism, dosimetric analysis demonstrates large interpatient variability in tumour and organ uptake, with kidneys and bone marrow being the critical organs. The results are dependent on the image acquisition and processing protocol, as well as the dosimetric imaging radiopharmaceutical.

4D SPECT/CT acquisition for 3D dose calculation and dose planning in (177)Lu-peptide receptor radionuclide therapy: applications for clinical routine

Molecular radiotherapy combines the potential of a specific tracer (vector) targeting tumor cells with local radiotoxicity. Designing a specific tumor-targeting/killing combination is a tailoring process. Radionuclides with imaging capacity serve best in the selection of the targeting molecule. The potential of targeted therapy with radiolabeled peptides has been reported in many conditions; peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) is already part of Scandinavian guidelines for treating neuroendocrine tumors. Lu-177- and Y-90-labeled somatostatin analogs, including DOTATOC, DOTANOC, and DOTATATE, are most the commonly used and have turned out to be effective. For routine use, an efficient, rapid, and reliable dose calculation tool is needed. In this chapter we describe how serial pre- and posttherapeutic scans can be used for dose calculation and for predicting therapy doses. Our software for radionuclide dose calculation is a three-dimensional, voxel-based system. The 3D dose calculation requires coregistered SPECT image sets from several time points after infusion to reconstruct time-activity curves for each voxel. Image registration is done directly by SPECT image registration using the first time point as a target. From the time-activity curves, initial activity and total half-life maps are calculated to produce a cumulated activity map. The cumulated activity map is then convoluted with a voxel-dose kernel to obtain a 3D dose map. We performed dose calculations similarly for both therapeutic and preplanning images. Preplanning dose was extrapolated to predict therapy dose using the ratio of administered activities. Our 3D dose calculation results are also compared with those of OLINDA. Our preliminary results indicate that dose planning using pretherapeutic scanning can predict critical organ and tumor doses. In some cases, the dose planning prediction resulted in slight, and slightly dose-dependent, overestimation of final therapy dose. Real tumor dose was similar in both pretherapeutic and posttherapeutic scans using our software. The OLINDA software and our program gave similar normal organ doses, whereas tumor doses could be calculated in a more detailed manner using the 3D program.

Individualized dosimetry of kidney and bone marrow in patients undergoing 177Lu-DOTA-octreotate treatment

The organs at risk in radionuclide therapy with (177)Lu-octreotate are the bone marrow and the kidneys. The primary aim of this study was to develop an individualized dosimetry protocol for the bone marrow. The secondary aim was to identify those patients, undergoing fractionated therapy with 7.4 GBq/cycle, who first reached an accumulated dose of either 2 Gy to the bone marrow or 23 Gy to the kidneys.

METHODS

Two hundred patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumors with high somatostatin receptor expression were included. After the administration of 7.4 GBq of (177)Lu-octreotate, blood samples were drawn 6 times within the first 24 h. In 50 patients, additional blood samples were obtained at 96 and 168 h. Moreover, urine was collected from 30 patients during the first 24 h. Planar whole-body and SPECT/CT images over the abdomen were acquired at 24, 96, and 168 h after the infusion. Calculation of the absorbed radiation dose to the bone marrow was based on blood and urinary activity curves combined with organ-based analysis of the whole-body images. The absorbed dose to the kidney was calculated from the pharmacokinetic data obtained from SPECT/CT.

RESULTS

For a single cycle of 7.4 GBq, the absorbed dose to the bone marrow and the kidney ranged from 0.05 to 0.4 Gy and from 2 to 10 Gy, respectively. In 197 of 200 patients, the kidneys accumulated an absorbed dose of 23 Gy before the bone marrow reached 2 Gy. Between 2 and 10 cycles of (177)Lu-octreotate could be administered before the upper dose limit for the individual patient was reached.

CONCLUSION

A method based on repeated whole-body imaging in combination with blood and urinary activity data over time was developed to determine the absorbed dose to the bone marrow. The dose-limiting organ was the kidney in 197 of 200 patients. In 50% of the patients, more than 4 cycles of 7.4 GBq of (177)Lu-octreotate could be administered, whereas 20% of the subjects were treated with fewer than 4 cycles. Individualized absorbed dose calculation is essential to optimize the therapy.

Pretargeted molecular imaging and radioimmunotherapy

Pretargeting is a multi-step process that first has an unlabeled bispecific antibody (bsMAb) localize within a tumor by virtue of its anti-tumor binding site(s) before administering a small, fast-clearing radiolabeled compound that then attaches to the other portion of the bsMAb. The compound's rapid clearance significantly reduces radiation exposure outside of the tumor and its small size permits speedy delivery to the tumor, creating excellent tumor/nontumor ratios in less than 1 hour. Haptens that bind to an anti-hapten antibody, biotin that binds to streptavidin, or an oligonucleotide binding to a complementary oligonucleotide sequence have all been radiolabeled for use by pretargeting. This review will focus on a highly flexible anti-hapten bsMAb platform that has been used to target a variety of radionuclides to image (SPECT and PET) as well as treat tumors.